+++ /dev/null
-This is standards.info, produced by makeinfo version 4.8 from
-.././etc/standards.texi.
-
-START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
-* Standards: (standards). GNU coding standards.
-END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
-
- GNU Coding Standards Copyright (C) 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996,
-1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
-
- Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
-under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or
-any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no
-Invariant Sections, with no Front-Cover Texts, and with no Back-Cover
-Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU
-Free Documentation License".
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Top, Next: Preface, Prev: (dir), Up: (dir)
-
-Version
-*******
-
-Last updated February 14, 2002.
-
-* Menu:
-
-* Preface:: About the GNU Coding Standards
-* Legal Issues:: Keeping Free Software Free
-* Design Advice:: General Program Design
-* Program Behavior:: Program Behavior for All Programs
-* Writing C:: Making The Best Use of C
-* Documentation:: Documenting Programs
-* Managing Releases:: The Release Process
-* References:: References to Non-Free Software or Documentation
-* Copying This Manual:: How to Make Copies of This Manual
-* Index::
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Preface, Next: Legal Issues, Prev: Top, Up: Top
-
-1 About the GNU Coding Standards
-********************************
-
-The GNU Coding Standards were written by Richard Stallman and other GNU
-Project volunteers. Their purpose is to make the GNU system clean,
-consistent, and easy to install. This document can also be read as a
-guide to writing portable, robust and reliable programs. It focuses on
-programs written in C, but many of the rules and principles are useful
-even if you write in another programming language. The rules often
-state reasons for writing in a certain way.
-
- This release of the GNU Coding Standards was last updated February
-14, 2002.
-
- If you did not obtain this file directly from the GNU project and
-recently, please check for a newer version. You can ftp the GNU Coding
-Standards from any GNU FTP host in the directory `/pub/gnu/standards/'.
-The GNU Coding Standards are available there in several different
-formats: `standards.text', `standards.info', and `standards.dvi', as
-well as the Texinfo "source" which is divided in two files:
-`standards.texi' and `make-stds.texi'. The GNU Coding Standards are
-also available on the GNU World Wide Web server:
-`http://www.gnu.org/prep/standards_toc.html'.
-
- Corrections or suggestions for this document should be sent to
-<bug-standards@gnu.org>. If you make a suggestion, please include a
-suggested new wording for it; our time is limited. We prefer a context
-diff to the `standards.texi' or `make-stds.texi' files, but if you
-don't have those files, please mail your suggestion anyway.
-
- These standards cover the minimum of what is important when writing a
-GNU package. Likely, the needs for additional standards will come up.
-Sometimes, you might suggest that such standards be added to this
-document. If you think your standards would be generally useful, please
-do suggest them.
-
- You should also set standards for your package on many questions not
-addressed or not firmly specified here. The most important point is to
-be self-consistent--try to stick to the conventions you pick, and try
-to document them as much as possible. That way, your program will be
-more maintainable by others.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Legal Issues, Next: Design Advice, Prev: Preface, Up: Top
-
-2 Keeping Free Software Free
-****************************
-
-This node discusses how you can make sure that GNU software avoids
-legal difficulties, and other related issues.
-
-* Menu:
-
-* Reading Non-Free Code:: Referring to Proprietary Programs
-* Contributions:: Accepting Contributions
-* Trademarks:: How We Deal with Trademark Issues
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Reading Non-Free Code, Next: Contributions, Up: Legal Issues
-
-2.1 Referring to Proprietary Programs
-=====================================
-
-Don't in any circumstances refer to Unix source code for or during your
-work on GNU! (Or to any other proprietary programs.)
-
- If you have a vague recollection of the internals of a Unix program,
-this does not absolutely mean you can't write an imitation of it, but
-do try to organize the imitation internally along different lines,
-because this is likely to make the details of the Unix version
-irrelevant and dissimilar to your results.
-
- For example, Unix utilities were generally optimized to minimize
-memory use; if you go for speed instead, your program will be very
-different. You could keep the entire input file in core and scan it
-there instead of using stdio. Use a smarter algorithm discovered more
-recently than the Unix program. Eliminate use of temporary files. Do
-it in one pass instead of two (we did this in the assembler).
-
- Or, on the contrary, emphasize simplicity instead of speed. For some
-applications, the speed of today's computers makes simpler algorithms
-adequate.
-
- Or go for generality. For example, Unix programs often have static
-tables or fixed-size strings, which make for arbitrary limits; use
-dynamic allocation instead. Make sure your program handles NULs and
-other funny characters in the input files. Add a programming language
-for extensibility and write part of the program in that language.
-
- Or turn some parts of the program into independently usable
-libraries. Or use a simple garbage collector instead of tracking
-precisely when to free memory, or use a new GNU facility such as
-obstacks.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Contributions, Next: Trademarks, Prev: Reading Non-Free Code, Up: Legal Issues
-
-2.2 Accepting Contributions
-===========================
-
-If the program you are working on is copyrighted by the Free Software
-Foundation, then when someone else sends you a piece of code to add to
-the program, we need legal papers to use it--just as we asked you to
-sign papers initially. _Each_ person who makes a nontrivial
-contribution to a program must sign some sort of legal papers in order
-for us to have clear title to the program; the main author alone is not
-enough.
-
- So, before adding in any contributions from other people, please tell
-us, so we can arrange to get the papers. Then wait until we tell you
-that we have received the signed papers, before you actually use the
-contribution.
-
- This applies both before you release the program and afterward. If
-you receive diffs to fix a bug, and they make significant changes, we
-need legal papers for that change.
-
- This also applies to comments and documentation files. For copyright
-law, comments and code are just text. Copyright applies to all kinds of
-text, so we need legal papers for all kinds.
-
- We know it is frustrating to ask for legal papers; it's frustrating
-for us as well. But if you don't wait, you are going out on a limb--for
-example, what if the contributor's employer won't sign a disclaimer?
-You might have to take that code out again!
-
- You don't need papers for changes of a few lines here or there, since
-they are not significant for copyright purposes. Also, you don't need
-papers if all you get from the suggestion is some ideas, not actual code
-which you use. For example, if someone send you one implementation, but
-you write a different implementation of the same idea, you don't need to
-get papers.
-
- The very worst thing is if you forget to tell us about the other
-contributor. We could be very embarrassed in court some day as a
-result.
-
- We have more detailed advice for maintainers of programs; if you have
-reached the stage of actually maintaining a program for GNU (whether
-released or not), please ask us for a copy.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Trademarks, Prev: Contributions, Up: Legal Issues
-
-2.3 Trademarks
-==============
-
-Please do not include any trademark acknowledgements in GNU software
-packages or documentation.
-
- Trademark acknowledgements are the statements that such-and-such is a
-trademark of so-and-so. The GNU Project has no objection to the basic
-idea of trademarks, but these acknowledgements feel like kowtowing, so
-we don't use them. There is no legal requirement for them.
-
- What is legally required, as regards other people's trademarks, is to
-avoid using them in ways which a reader might read as naming or labeling
-our own programs or activities. For example, since "Objective C" is
-(or at least was) a trademark, we made sure to say that we provide a
-"compiler for the Objective C language" rather than an "Objective C
-compiler". The latter is meant to be short for the former, but it does
-not explicitly state the relationship, so it could be misinterpreted as
-using "Objective C" as a label for the compiler rather than for the
-language.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Design Advice, Next: Program Behavior, Prev: Legal Issues, Up: Top
-
-3 General Program Design
-************************
-
-This node discusses some of the issues you should take into account
-when designing your program.
-
-* Menu:
-
-* Source Language:: Which languges to use.
-* Compatibility:: Compatibility with other implementations
-* Using Extensions:: Using non-standard features
-* Standard C:: Using Standard C features
-* Conditional Compilation:: Compiling Code Only If A Conditional is True
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Source Language, Next: Compatibility, Up: Design Advice
-
-3.1 Which Languages to Use
-==========================
-
-When you want to use a language that gets compiled and runs at high
-speed, the best language to use is C. Using another language is like
-using a non-standard feature: it will cause trouble for users. Even if
-GCC supports the other language, users may find it inconvenient to have
-to install the compiler for that other language in order to build your
-program. For example, if you write your program in C++, people will
-have to install the GNU C++ compiler in order to compile your program.
-
- C has one other advantage over C++ and other compiled languages: more
-people know C, so more people will find it easy to read and modify the
-program if it is written in C.
-
- So in general it is much better to use C, rather than the comparable
-alternatives.
-
- But there are two exceptions to that conclusion:
-
- * It is no problem to use another language to write a tool
- specifically intended for use with that language. That is because
- the only people who want to build the tool will be those who have
- installed the other language anyway.
-
- * If an application is of interest only to a narrow part of the
- community, then the question of which language it is written in
- has less effect on other people, so you may as well please
- yourself.
-
- Many programs are designed to be extensible: they include an
-interpreter for a language that is higher level than C. Often much of
-the program is written in that language, too. The Emacs editor
-pioneered this technique.
-
- The standard extensibility interpreter for GNU software is GUILE,
-which implements the language Scheme (an especially clean and simple
-dialect of Lisp). `http://www.gnu.org/software/guile/'. We don't
-reject programs written in other "scripting languages" such as Perl and
-Python, but using GUILE is very important for the overall consistency of
-the GNU system.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Compatibility, Next: Using Extensions, Prev: Source Language, Up: Design Advice
-
-3.2 Compatibility with Other Implementations
-============================================
-
-With occasional exceptions, utility programs and libraries for GNU
-should be upward compatible with those in Berkeley Unix, and upward
-compatible with Standard C if Standard C specifies their behavior, and
-upward compatible with POSIX if POSIX specifies their behavior.
-
- When these standards conflict, it is useful to offer compatibility
-modes for each of them.
-
- Standard C and POSIX prohibit many kinds of extensions. Feel free
-to make the extensions anyway, and include a `--ansi', `--posix', or
-`--compatible' option to turn them off. However, if the extension has
-a significant chance of breaking any real programs or scripts, then it
-is not really upward compatible. So you should try to redesign its
-interface to make it upward compatible.
-
- Many GNU programs suppress extensions that conflict with POSIX if the
-environment variable `POSIXLY_CORRECT' is defined (even if it is
-defined with a null value). Please make your program recognize this
-variable if appropriate.
-
- When a feature is used only by users (not by programs or command
-files), and it is done poorly in Unix, feel free to replace it
-completely with something totally different and better. (For example,
-`vi' is replaced with Emacs.) But it is nice to offer a compatible
-feature as well. (There is a free `vi' clone, so we offer it.)
-
- Additional useful features are welcome regardless of whether there
-is any precedent for them.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Using Extensions, Next: Standard C, Prev: Compatibility, Up: Design Advice
-
-3.3 Using Non-standard Features
-===============================
-
-Many GNU facilities that already exist support a number of convenient
-extensions over the comparable Unix facilities. Whether to use these
-extensions in implementing your program is a difficult question.
-
- On the one hand, using the extensions can make a cleaner program.
-On the other hand, people will not be able to build the program unless
-the other GNU tools are available. This might cause the program to
-work on fewer kinds of machines.
-
- With some extensions, it might be easy to provide both alternatives.
-For example, you can define functions with a "keyword" `INLINE' and
-define that as a macro to expand into either `inline' or nothing,
-depending on the compiler.
-
- In general, perhaps it is best not to use the extensions if you can
-straightforwardly do without them, but to use the extensions if they
-are a big improvement.
-
- An exception to this rule are the large, established programs (such
-as Emacs) which run on a great variety of systems. Using GNU
-extensions in such programs would make many users unhappy, so we don't
-do that.
-
- Another exception is for programs that are used as part of
-compilation: anything that must be compiled with other compilers in
-order to bootstrap the GNU compilation facilities. If these require
-the GNU compiler, then no one can compile them without having them
-installed already. That would be extremely troublesome in certain
-cases.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Standard C, Next: Conditional Compilation, Prev: Using Extensions, Up: Design Advice
-
-3.4 Standard C and Pre-Standard C
-=================================
-
-1989 Standard C is widespread enough now that it is ok to use its
-features in new programs. There is one exception: do not ever use the
-"trigraph" feature of Standard C.
-
- 1999 Standard C is not widespread yet, so please do not require its
-features in programs. It is ok to use its features if they are present.
-
- However, it is easy to support pre-standard compilers in most
-programs, so if you know how to do that, feel free. If a program you
-are maintaining has such support, you should try to keep it working.
-
- To support pre-standard C, instead of writing function definitions in
-standard prototype form,
-
- int
- foo (int x, int y)
- ...
-
-write the definition in pre-standard style like this,
-
- int
- foo (x, y)
- int x, y;
- ...
-
-and use a separate declaration to specify the argument prototype:
-
- int foo (int, int);
-
- You need such a declaration anyway, in a header file, to get the
-benefit of prototypes in all the files where the function is called.
-And once you have the declaration, you normally lose nothing by writing
-the function definition in the pre-standard style.
-
- This technique does not work for integer types narrower than `int'.
-If you think of an argument as being of a type narrower than `int',
-declare it as `int' instead.
-
- There are a few special cases where this technique is hard to use.
-For example, if a function argument needs to hold the system type
-`dev_t', you run into trouble, because `dev_t' is shorter than `int' on
-some machines; but you cannot use `int' instead, because `dev_t' is
-wider than `int' on some machines. There is no type you can safely use
-on all machines in a non-standard definition. The only way to support
-non-standard C and pass such an argument is to check the width of
-`dev_t' using Autoconf and choose the argument type accordingly. This
-may not be worth the trouble.
-
- In order to support pre-standard compilers that do not recognize
-prototypes, you may want to use a preprocessor macro like this:
-
- /* Declare the prototype for a general external function. */
- #if defined (__STDC__) || defined (WINDOWSNT)
- #define P_(proto) proto
- #else
- #define P_(proto) ()
- #endif
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Conditional Compilation, Prev: Standard C, Up: Design Advice
-
-3.5 Conditional Compilation
-===========================
-
-When supporting configuration options already known when building your
-program we prefer using `if (... )' over conditional compilation, as in
-the former case the compiler is able to perform more extensive checking
-of all possible code paths.
-
- For example, please write
-
- if (HAS_FOO)
- ...
- else
- ...
-
- instead of:
-
- #ifdef HAS_FOO
- ...
- #else
- ...
- #endif
-
- A modern compiler such as GCC will generate exactly the same code in
-both cases, and we have been using similar techniques with good success
-in several projects.
-
- While this is not a silver bullet solving all portability problems,
-following this policy would have saved the GCC project alone many person
-hours if not days per year.
-
- In the case of function-like macros like `REVERSIBLE_CC_MODE' in GCC
-which cannot be simply used in `if( ...)' statements, there is an easy
-workaround. Simply introduce another macro `HAS_REVERSIBLE_CC_MODE' as
-in the following example:
-
- #ifdef REVERSIBLE_CC_MODE
- #define HAS_REVERSIBLE_CC_MODE 1
- #else
- #define HAS_REVERSIBLE_CC_MODE 0
- #endif
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Program Behavior, Next: Writing C, Prev: Design Advice, Up: Top
-
-4 Program Behavior for All Programs
-***********************************
-
-This node describes conventions for writing robust software. It also
-describes general standards for error messages, the command line
-interface, and how libraries should behave.
-
-* Menu:
-
-* Semantics:: Writing robust programs
-* Libraries:: Library behavior
-* Errors:: Formatting error messages
-* User Interfaces:: Standards about interfaces generally
-* Graphical Interfaces:: Standards for graphical interfaces
-* Command-Line Interfaces:: Standards for command line interfaces
-* Option Table:: Table of long options
-* Memory Usage:: When and how to care about memory needs
-* File Usage:: Which files to use, and where
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Semantics, Next: Libraries, Up: Program Behavior
-
-4.1 Writing Robust Programs
-===========================
-
-Avoid arbitrary limits on the length or number of _any_ data structure,
-including file names, lines, files, and symbols, by allocating all data
-structures dynamically. In most Unix utilities, "long lines are
-silently truncated". This is not acceptable in a GNU utility.
-
- Utilities reading files should not drop NUL characters, or any other
-nonprinting characters _including those with codes above 0177_. The
-only sensible exceptions would be utilities specifically intended for
-interface to certain types of terminals or printers that can't handle
-those characters. Whenever possible, try to make programs work
-properly with sequences of bytes that represent multibyte characters,
-using encodings such as UTF-8 and others.
-
- Check every system call for an error return, unless you know you
-wish to ignore errors. Include the system error text (from `perror' or
-equivalent) in _every_ error message resulting from a failing system
-call, as well as the name of the file if any and the name of the
-utility. Just "cannot open foo.c" or "stat failed" is not sufficient.
-
- Check every call to `malloc' or `realloc' to see if it returned
-zero. Check `realloc' even if you are making the block smaller; in a
-system that rounds block sizes to a power of 2, `realloc' may get a
-different block if you ask for less space.
-
- In Unix, `realloc' can destroy the storage block if it returns zero.
-GNU `realloc' does not have this bug: if it fails, the original block
-is unchanged. Feel free to assume the bug is fixed. If you wish to
-run your program on Unix, and wish to avoid lossage in this case, you
-can use the GNU `malloc'.
-
- You must expect `free' to alter the contents of the block that was
-freed. Anything you want to fetch from the block, you must fetch before
-calling `free'.
-
- If `malloc' fails in a noninteractive program, make that a fatal
-error. In an interactive program (one that reads commands from the
-user), it is better to abort the command and return to the command
-reader loop. This allows the user to kill other processes to free up
-virtual memory, and then try the command again.
-
- Use `getopt_long' to decode arguments, unless the argument syntax
-makes this unreasonable.
-
- When static storage is to be written in during program execution, use
-explicit C code to initialize it. Reserve C initialized declarations
-for data that will not be changed.
-
- Try to avoid low-level interfaces to obscure Unix data structures
-(such as file directories, utmp, or the layout of kernel memory), since
-these are less likely to work compatibly. If you need to find all the
-files in a directory, use `readdir' or some other high-level interface.
-These are supported compatibly by GNU.
-
- The preferred signal handling facilities are the BSD variant of
-`signal', and the POSIX `sigaction' function; the alternative USG
-`signal' interface is an inferior design.
-
- Nowadays, using the POSIX signal functions may be the easiest way to
-make a program portable. If you use `signal', then on GNU/Linux
-systems running GNU libc version 1, you should include `bsd/signal.h'
-instead of `signal.h', so as to get BSD behavior. It is up to you
-whether to support systems where `signal' has only the USG behavior, or
-give up on them.
-
- In error checks that detect "impossible" conditions, just abort.
-There is usually no point in printing any message. These checks
-indicate the existence of bugs. Whoever wants to fix the bugs will have
-to read the source code and run a debugger. So explain the problem with
-comments in the source. The relevant data will be in variables, which
-are easy to examine with the debugger, so there is no point moving them
-elsewhere.
-
- Do not use a count of errors as the exit status for a program.
-_That does not work_, because exit status values are limited to 8 bits
-(0 through 255). A single run of the program might have 256 errors; if
-you try to return 256 as the exit status, the parent process will see 0
-as the status, and it will appear that the program succeeded.
-
- If you make temporary files, check the `TMPDIR' environment
-variable; if that variable is defined, use the specified directory
-instead of `/tmp'.
-
- In addition, be aware that there is a possible security problem when
-creating temporary files in world-writable directories. In C, you can
-avoid this problem by creating temporary files in this manner:
-
- fd = open(filename, O_WRONLY | O_CREAT | O_EXCL, 0600);
-
-or by using the `mkstemps' function from libiberty.
-
- In bash, use `set -C' to avoid this problem.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Libraries, Next: Errors, Prev: Semantics, Up: Program Behavior
-
-4.2 Library Behavior
-====================
-
-Try to make library functions reentrant. If they need to do dynamic
-storage allocation, at least try to avoid any nonreentrancy aside from
-that of `malloc' itself.
-
- Here are certain name conventions for libraries, to avoid name
-conflicts.
-
- Choose a name prefix for the library, more than two characters long.
-All external function and variable names should start with this prefix.
-In addition, there should only be one of these in any given library
-member. This usually means putting each one in a separate source file.
-
- An exception can be made when two external symbols are always used
-together, so that no reasonable program could use one without the
-other; then they can both go in the same file.
-
- External symbols that are not documented entry points for the user
-should have names beginning with `_'. The `_' should be followed by
-the chosen name prefix for the library, to prevent collisions with
-other libraries. These can go in the same files with user entry points
-if you like.
-
- Static functions and variables can be used as you like and need not
-fit any naming convention.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Errors, Next: User Interfaces, Prev: Libraries, Up: Program Behavior
-
-4.3 Formatting Error Messages
-=============================
-
-Error messages from compilers should look like this:
-
- SOURCE-FILE-NAME:LINENO: MESSAGE
-
-If you want to mention the column number, use this format:
-
- SOURCE-FILE-NAME:LINENO:COLUMN: MESSAGE
-
-Line numbers should start from 1 at the beginning of the file, and
-column numbers should start from 1 at the beginning of the line. (Both
-of these conventions are chosen for compatibility.) Calculate column
-numbers assuming that space and all ASCII printing characters have
-equal width, and assuming tab stops every 8 columns.
-
- Error messages from other noninteractive programs should look like
-this:
-
- PROGRAM:SOURCE-FILE-NAME:LINENO: MESSAGE
-
-when there is an appropriate source file, or like this:
-
- PROGRAM: MESSAGE
-
-when there is no relevant source file.
-
- If you want to mention the column number, use this format:
-
- PROGRAM:SOURCE-FILE-NAME:LINENO:COLUMN: MESSAGE
-
- In an interactive program (one that is reading commands from a
-terminal), it is better not to include the program name in an error
-message. The place to indicate which program is running is in the
-prompt or with the screen layout. (When the same program runs with
-input from a source other than a terminal, it is not interactive and
-would do best to print error messages using the noninteractive style.)
-
- The string MESSAGE should not begin with a capital letter when it
-follows a program name and/or file name. Also, it should not end with
-a period.
-
- Error messages from interactive programs, and other messages such as
-usage messages, should start with a capital letter. But they should not
-end with a period.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: User Interfaces, Next: Graphical Interfaces, Prev: Errors, Up: Program Behavior
-
-4.4 Standards for Interfaces Generally
-======================================
-
-Please don't make the behavior of a utility depend on the name used to
-invoke it. It is useful sometimes to make a link to a utility with a
-different name, and that should not change what it does.
-
- Instead, use a run time option or a compilation switch or both to
-select among the alternate behaviors.
-
- Likewise, please don't make the behavior of the program depend on the
-type of output device it is used with. Device independence is an
-important principle of the system's design; do not compromise it merely
-to save someone from typing an option now and then. (Variation in error
-message syntax when using a terminal is ok, because that is a side issue
-that people do not depend on.)
-
- If you think one behavior is most useful when the output is to a
-terminal, and another is most useful when the output is a file or a
-pipe, then it is usually best to make the default behavior the one that
-is useful with output to a terminal, and have an option for the other
-behavior.
-
- Compatibility requires certain programs to depend on the type of
-output device. It would be disastrous if `ls' or `sh' did not do so in
-the way all users expect. In some of these cases, we supplement the
-program with a preferred alternate version that does not depend on the
-output device type. For example, we provide a `dir' program much like
-`ls' except that its default output format is always multi-column
-format.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Graphical Interfaces, Next: Command-Line Interfaces, Prev: User Interfaces, Up: Program Behavior
-
-4.5 Standards for Graphical Interfaces
-======================================
-
-When you write a program that provides a graphical user interface,
-please make it work with X Windows and the GTK toolkit unless the
-functionality specifically requires some alternative (for example,
-"displaying jpeg images while in console mode").
-
- In addition, please provide a command-line interface to control the
-functionality. (In many cases, the graphical user interface can be a
-separate program which invokes the command-line program.) This is so
-that the same jobs can be done from scripts.
-
- Please also consider providing a CORBA interface (for use from
-GNOME), a library interface (for use from C), and perhaps a
-keyboard-driven console interface (for use by users from console mode).
-Once you are doing the work to provide the functionality and the
-graphical interface, these won't be much extra work.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Command-Line Interfaces, Next: Option Table, Prev: Graphical Interfaces, Up: Program Behavior
-
-4.6 Standards for Command Line Interfaces
-=========================================
-
-It is a good idea to follow the POSIX guidelines for the command-line
-options of a program. The easiest way to do this is to use `getopt' to
-parse them. Note that the GNU version of `getopt' will normally permit
-options anywhere among the arguments unless the special argument `--'
-is used. This is not what POSIX specifies; it is a GNU extension.
-
- Please define long-named options that are equivalent to the
-single-letter Unix-style options. We hope to make GNU more user
-friendly this way. This is easy to do with the GNU function
-`getopt_long'.
-
- One of the advantages of long-named options is that they can be
-consistent from program to program. For example, users should be able
-to expect the "verbose" option of any GNU program which has one, to be
-spelled precisely `--verbose'. To achieve this uniformity, look at the
-table of common long-option names when you choose the option names for
-your program (*note Option Table::).
-
- It is usually a good idea for file names given as ordinary arguments
-to be input files only; any output files would be specified using
-options (preferably `-o' or `--output'). Even if you allow an output
-file name as an ordinary argument for compatibility, try to provide an
-option as another way to specify it. This will lead to more consistency
-among GNU utilities, and fewer idiosyncracies for users to remember.
-
- All programs should support two standard options: `--version' and
-`--help'.
-
-`--version'
- This option should direct the program to print information about
- its name, version, origin and legal status, all on standard
- output, and then exit successfully. Other options and arguments
- should be ignored once this is seen, and the program should not
- perform its normal function.
-
- The first line is meant to be easy for a program to parse; the
- version number proper starts after the last space. In addition,
- it contains the canonical name for this program, in this format:
-
- GNU Emacs 19.30
-
- The program's name should be a constant string; _don't_ compute it
- from `argv[0]'. The idea is to state the standard or canonical
- name for the program, not its file name. There are other ways to
- find out the precise file name where a command is found in `PATH'.
-
- If the program is a subsidiary part of a larger package, mention
- the package name in parentheses, like this:
-
- emacsserver (GNU Emacs) 19.30
-
- If the package has a version number which is different from this
- program's version number, you can mention the package version
- number just before the close-parenthesis.
-
- If you *need* to mention the version numbers of libraries which
- are distributed separately from the package which contains this
- program, you can do so by printing an additional line of version
- info for each library you want to mention. Use the same format
- for these lines as for the first line.
-
- Please do not mention all of the libraries that the program uses
- "just for completeness"--that would produce a lot of unhelpful
- clutter. Please mention library version numbers only if you find
- in practice that they are very important to you in debugging.
-
- The following line, after the version number line or lines, should
- be a copyright notice. If more than one copyright notice is
- called for, put each on a separate line.
-
- Next should follow a brief statement that the program is free
- software, and that users are free to copy and change it on certain
- conditions. If the program is covered by the GNU GPL, say so
- here. Also mention that there is no warranty, to the extent
- permitted by law.
-
- It is ok to finish the output with a list of the major authors of
- the program, as a way of giving credit.
-
- Here's an example of output that follows these rules:
-
- GNU Emacs 19.34.5
- Copyright (C) 1996 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
- GNU Emacs comes with NO WARRANTY,
- to the extent permitted by law.
- You may redistribute copies of GNU Emacs
- under the terms of the GNU General Public License.
- For more information about these matters,
- see the files named COPYING.
-
- You should adapt this to your program, of course, filling in the
- proper year, copyright holder, name of program, and the references
- to distribution terms, and changing the rest of the wording as
- necessary.
-
- This copyright notice only needs to mention the most recent year in
- which changes were made--there's no need to list the years for
- previous versions' changes. You don't have to mention the name of
- the program in these notices, if that is inconvenient, since it
- appeared in the first line.
-
- Translations of the above lines must preserve the validity of the
- copyright notices (*note Internationalization::). If the
- translation's character set supports it, the `(C)' should be
- replaced with the copyright symbol, as follows:
-
- (the official copyright symbol, which is the letter C in a circle);
-
- Write the word "Copyright" exactly like that, in English. Do not
- translate it into another language. International treaties
- recognize the English word "Copyright"; translations into other
- languages do not have legal significance.
-
-`--help'
- This option should output brief documentation for how to invoke the
- program, on standard output, then exit successfully. Other
- options and arguments should be ignored once this is seen, and the
- program should not perform its normal function.
-
- Near the end of the `--help' option's output there should be a line
- that says where to mail bug reports. It should have this format:
-
- Report bugs to MAILING-ADDRESS.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Option Table, Next: Memory Usage, Prev: Command-Line Interfaces, Up: Program Behavior
-
-4.7 Table of Long Options
-=========================
-
-Here is a table of long options used by GNU programs. It is surely
-incomplete, but we aim to list all the options that a new program might
-want to be compatible with. If you use names not already in the table,
-please send <bug-standards@gnu.org> a list of them, with their
-meanings, so we can update the table.
-
-`after-date'
- `-N' in `tar'.
-
-`all'
- `-a' in `du', `ls', `nm', `stty', `uname', and `unexpand'.
-
-`all-text'
- `-a' in `diff'.
-
-`almost-all'
- `-A' in `ls'.
-
-`append'
- `-a' in `etags', `tee', `time'; `-r' in `tar'.
-
-`archive'
- `-a' in `cp'.
-
-`archive-name'
- `-n' in `shar'.
-
-`arglength'
- `-l' in `m4'.
-
-`ascii'
- `-a' in `diff'.
-
-`assign'
- `-v' in `gawk'.
-
-`assume-new'
- `-W' in Make.
-
-`assume-old'
- `-o' in Make.
-
-`auto-check'
- `-a' in `recode'.
-
-`auto-pager'
- `-a' in `wdiff'.
-
-`auto-reference'
- `-A' in `ptx'.
-
-`avoid-wraps'
- `-n' in `wdiff'.
-
-`background'
- For server programs, run in the background.
-
-`backward-search'
- `-B' in `ctags'.
-
-`basename'
- `-f' in `shar'.
-
-`batch'
- Used in GDB.
-
-`baud'
- Used in GDB.
-
-`before'
- `-b' in `tac'.
-
-`binary'
- `-b' in `cpio' and `diff'.
-
-`bits-per-code'
- `-b' in `shar'.
-
-`block-size'
- Used in `cpio' and `tar'.
-
-`blocks'
- `-b' in `head' and `tail'.
-
-`break-file'
- `-b' in `ptx'.
-
-`brief'
- Used in various programs to make output shorter.
-
-`bytes'
- `-c' in `head', `split', and `tail'.
-
-`c++'
- `-C' in `etags'.
-
-`catenate'
- `-A' in `tar'.
-
-`cd'
- Used in various programs to specify the directory to use.
-
-`changes'
- `-c' in `chgrp' and `chown'.
-
-`classify'
- `-F' in `ls'.
-
-`colons'
- `-c' in `recode'.
-
-`command'
- `-c' in `su'; `-x' in GDB.
-
-`compare'
- `-d' in `tar'.
-
-`compat'
- Used in `gawk'.
-
-`compress'
- `-Z' in `tar' and `shar'.
-
-`concatenate'
- `-A' in `tar'.
-
-`confirmation'
- `-w' in `tar'.
-
-`context'
- Used in `diff'.
-
-`copyleft'
- `-W copyleft' in `gawk'.
-
-`copyright'
- `-C' in `ptx', `recode', and `wdiff'; `-W copyright' in `gawk'.
-
-`core'
- Used in GDB.
-
-`count'
- `-q' in `who'.
-
-`count-links'
- `-l' in `du'.
-
-`create'
- Used in `tar' and `cpio'.
-
-`cut-mark'
- `-c' in `shar'.
-
-`cxref'
- `-x' in `ctags'.
-
-`date'
- `-d' in `touch'.
-
-`debug'
- `-d' in Make and `m4'; `-t' in Bison.
-
-`define'
- `-D' in `m4'.
-
-`defines'
- `-d' in Bison and `ctags'.
-
-`delete'
- `-D' in `tar'.
-
-`dereference'
- `-L' in `chgrp', `chown', `cpio', `du', `ls', and `tar'.
-
-`dereference-args'
- `-D' in `du'.
-
-`device'
- Specify an I/O device (special file name).
-
-`diacritics'
- `-d' in `recode'.
-
-`dictionary-order'
- `-d' in `look'.
-
-`diff'
- `-d' in `tar'.
-
-`digits'
- `-n' in `csplit'.
-
-`directory'
- Specify the directory to use, in various programs. In `ls', it
- means to show directories themselves rather than their contents.
- In `rm' and `ln', it means to not treat links to directories
- specially.
-
-`discard-all'
- `-x' in `strip'.
-
-`discard-locals'
- `-X' in `strip'.
-
-`dry-run'
- `-n' in Make.
-
-`ed'
- `-e' in `diff'.
-
-`elide-empty-files'
- `-z' in `csplit'.
-
-`end-delete'
- `-x' in `wdiff'.
-
-`end-insert'
- `-z' in `wdiff'.
-
-`entire-new-file'
- `-N' in `diff'.
-
-`environment-overrides'
- `-e' in Make.
-
-`eof'
- `-e' in `xargs'.
-
-`epoch'
- Used in GDB.
-
-`error-limit'
- Used in `makeinfo'.
-
-`error-output'
- `-o' in `m4'.
-
-`escape'
- `-b' in `ls'.
-
-`exclude-from'
- `-X' in `tar'.
-
-`exec'
- Used in GDB.
-
-`exit'
- `-x' in `xargs'.
-
-`exit-0'
- `-e' in `unshar'.
-
-`expand-tabs'
- `-t' in `diff'.
-
-`expression'
- `-e' in `sed'.
-
-`extern-only'
- `-g' in `nm'.
-
-`extract'
- `-i' in `cpio'; `-x' in `tar'.
-
-`faces'
- `-f' in `finger'.
-
-`fast'
- `-f' in `su'.
-
-`fatal-warnings'
- `-E' in `m4'.
-
-`file'
- `-f' in `info', `gawk', Make, `mt', and `tar'; `-n' in `sed'; `-r'
- in `touch'.
-
-`field-separator'
- `-F' in `gawk'.
-
-`file-prefix'
- `-b' in Bison.
-
-`file-type'
- `-F' in `ls'.
-
-`files-from'
- `-T' in `tar'.
-
-`fill-column'
- Used in `makeinfo'.
-
-`flag-truncation'
- `-F' in `ptx'.
-
-`fixed-output-files'
- `-y' in Bison.
-
-`follow'
- `-f' in `tail'.
-
-`footnote-style'
- Used in `makeinfo'.
-
-`force'
- `-f' in `cp', `ln', `mv', and `rm'.
-
-`force-prefix'
- `-F' in `shar'.
-
-`foreground'
- For server programs, run in the foreground; in other words, don't
- do anything special to run the server in the background.
-
-`format'
- Used in `ls', `time', and `ptx'.
-
-`freeze-state'
- `-F' in `m4'.
-
-`fullname'
- Used in GDB.
-
-`gap-size'
- `-g' in `ptx'.
-
-`get'
- `-x' in `tar'.
-
-`graphic'
- `-i' in `ul'.
-
-`graphics'
- `-g' in `recode'.
-
-`group'
- `-g' in `install'.
-
-`gzip'
- `-z' in `tar' and `shar'.
-
-`hashsize'
- `-H' in `m4'.
-
-`header'
- `-h' in `objdump' and `recode'
-
-`heading'
- `-H' in `who'.
-
-`help'
- Used to ask for brief usage information.
-
-`here-delimiter'
- `-d' in `shar'.
-
-`hide-control-chars'
- `-q' in `ls'.
-
-`html'
- In `makeinfo', output HTML.
-
-`idle'
- `-u' in `who'.
-
-`ifdef'
- `-D' in `diff'.
-
-`ignore'
- `-I' in `ls'; `-x' in `recode'.
-
-`ignore-all-space'
- `-w' in `diff'.
-
-`ignore-backups'
- `-B' in `ls'.
-
-`ignore-blank-lines'
- `-B' in `diff'.
-
-`ignore-case'
- `-f' in `look' and `ptx'; `-i' in `diff' and `wdiff'.
-
-`ignore-errors'
- `-i' in Make.
-
-`ignore-file'
- `-i' in `ptx'.
-
-`ignore-indentation'
- `-I' in `etags'.
-
-`ignore-init-file'
- `-f' in Oleo.
-
-`ignore-interrupts'
- `-i' in `tee'.
-
-`ignore-matching-lines'
- `-I' in `diff'.
-
-`ignore-space-change'
- `-b' in `diff'.
-
-`ignore-zeros'
- `-i' in `tar'.
-
-`include'
- `-i' in `etags'; `-I' in `m4'.
-
-`include-dir'
- `-I' in Make.
-
-`incremental'
- `-G' in `tar'.
-
-`info'
- `-i', `-l', and `-m' in Finger.
-
-`init-file'
- In some programs, specify the name of the file to read as the
- user's init file.
-
-`initial'
- `-i' in `expand'.
-
-`initial-tab'
- `-T' in `diff'.
-
-`inode'
- `-i' in `ls'.
-
-`interactive'
- `-i' in `cp', `ln', `mv', `rm'; `-e' in `m4'; `-p' in `xargs';
- `-w' in `tar'.
-
-`intermix-type'
- `-p' in `shar'.
-
-`iso-8601'
- Used in `date'
-
-`jobs'
- `-j' in Make.
-
-`just-print'
- `-n' in Make.
-
-`keep-going'
- `-k' in Make.
-
-`keep-files'
- `-k' in `csplit'.
-
-`kilobytes'
- `-k' in `du' and `ls'.
-
-`language'
- `-l' in `etags'.
-
-`less-mode'
- `-l' in `wdiff'.
-
-`level-for-gzip'
- `-g' in `shar'.
-
-`line-bytes'
- `-C' in `split'.
-
-`lines'
- Used in `split', `head', and `tail'.
-
-`link'
- `-l' in `cpio'.
-
-`lint'
-`lint-old'
- Used in `gawk'.
-
-`list'
- `-t' in `cpio'; `-l' in `recode'.
-
-`list'
- `-t' in `tar'.
-
-`literal'
- `-N' in `ls'.
-
-`load-average'
- `-l' in Make.
-
-`login'
- Used in `su'.
-
-`machine'
- No listing of which programs already use this; someone should
- check to see if any actually do, and tell <gnu@gnu.org>.
-
-`macro-name'
- `-M' in `ptx'.
-
-`mail'
- `-m' in `hello' and `uname'.
-
-`make-directories'
- `-d' in `cpio'.
-
-`makefile'
- `-f' in Make.
-
-`mapped'
- Used in GDB.
-
-`max-args'
- `-n' in `xargs'.
-
-`max-chars'
- `-n' in `xargs'.
-
-`max-lines'
- `-l' in `xargs'.
-
-`max-load'
- `-l' in Make.
-
-`max-procs'
- `-P' in `xargs'.
-
-`mesg'
- `-T' in `who'.
-
-`message'
- `-T' in `who'.
-
-`minimal'
- `-d' in `diff'.
-
-`mixed-uuencode'
- `-M' in `shar'.
-
-`mode'
- `-m' in `install', `mkdir', and `mkfifo'.
-
-`modification-time'
- `-m' in `tar'.
-
-`multi-volume'
- `-M' in `tar'.
-
-`name-prefix'
- `-a' in Bison.
-
-`nesting-limit'
- `-L' in `m4'.
-
-`net-headers'
- `-a' in `shar'.
-
-`new-file'
- `-W' in Make.
-
-`no-builtin-rules'
- `-r' in Make.
-
-`no-character-count'
- `-w' in `shar'.
-
-`no-check-existing'
- `-x' in `shar'.
-
-`no-common'
- `-3' in `wdiff'.
-
-`no-create'
- `-c' in `touch'.
-
-`no-defines'
- `-D' in `etags'.
-
-`no-deleted'
- `-1' in `wdiff'.
-
-`no-dereference'
- `-d' in `cp'.
-
-`no-inserted'
- `-2' in `wdiff'.
-
-`no-keep-going'
- `-S' in Make.
-
-`no-lines'
- `-l' in Bison.
-
-`no-piping'
- `-P' in `shar'.
-
-`no-prof'
- `-e' in `gprof'.
-
-`no-regex'
- `-R' in `etags'.
-
-`no-sort'
- `-p' in `nm'.
-
-`no-split'
- Used in `makeinfo'.
-
-`no-static'
- `-a' in `gprof'.
-
-`no-time'
- `-E' in `gprof'.
-
-`no-timestamp'
- `-m' in `shar'.
-
-`no-validate'
- Used in `makeinfo'.
-
-`no-wait'
- Used in `emacsclient'.
-
-`no-warn'
- Used in various programs to inhibit warnings.
-
-`node'
- `-n' in `info'.
-
-`nodename'
- `-n' in `uname'.
-
-`nonmatching'
- `-f' in `cpio'.
-
-`nstuff'
- `-n' in `objdump'.
-
-`null'
- `-0' in `xargs'.
-
-`number'
- `-n' in `cat'.
-
-`number-nonblank'
- `-b' in `cat'.
-
-`numeric-sort'
- `-n' in `nm'.
-
-`numeric-uid-gid'
- `-n' in `cpio' and `ls'.
-
-`nx'
- Used in GDB.
-
-`old-archive'
- `-o' in `tar'.
-
-`old-file'
- `-o' in Make.
-
-`one-file-system'
- `-l' in `tar', `cp', and `du'.
-
-`only-file'
- `-o' in `ptx'.
-
-`only-prof'
- `-f' in `gprof'.
-
-`only-time'
- `-F' in `gprof'.
-
-`options'
- `-o' in `getopt', `fdlist', `fdmount', `fdmountd', and `fdumount'.
-
-`output'
- In various programs, specify the output file name.
-
-`output-prefix'
- `-o' in `shar'.
-
-`override'
- `-o' in `rm'.
-
-`overwrite'
- `-c' in `unshar'.
-
-`owner'
- `-o' in `install'.
-
-`paginate'
- `-l' in `diff'.
-
-`paragraph-indent'
- Used in `makeinfo'.
-
-`parents'
- `-p' in `mkdir' and `rmdir'.
-
-`pass-all'
- `-p' in `ul'.
-
-`pass-through'
- `-p' in `cpio'.
-
-`port'
- `-P' in `finger'.
-
-`portability'
- `-c' in `cpio' and `tar'.
-
-`posix'
- Used in `gawk'.
-
-`prefix-builtins'
- `-P' in `m4'.
-
-`prefix'
- `-f' in `csplit'.
-
-`preserve'
- Used in `tar' and `cp'.
-
-`preserve-environment'
- `-p' in `su'.
-
-`preserve-modification-time'
- `-m' in `cpio'.
-
-`preserve-order'
- `-s' in `tar'.
-
-`preserve-permissions'
- `-p' in `tar'.
-
-`print'
- `-l' in `diff'.
-
-`print-chars'
- `-L' in `cmp'.
-
-`print-data-base'
- `-p' in Make.
-
-`print-directory'
- `-w' in Make.
-
-`print-file-name'
- `-o' in `nm'.
-
-`print-symdefs'
- `-s' in `nm'.
-
-`printer'
- `-p' in `wdiff'.
-
-`prompt'
- `-p' in `ed'.
-
-`proxy'
- Specify an HTTP proxy.
-
-`query-user'
- `-X' in `shar'.
-
-`question'
- `-q' in Make.
-
-`quiet'
- Used in many programs to inhibit the usual output. *Note_* every
- program accepting `--quiet' should accept `--silent' as a synonym.
-
-`quiet-unshar'
- `-Q' in `shar'
-
-`quote-name'
- `-Q' in `ls'.
-
-`rcs'
- `-n' in `diff'.
-
-`re-interval'
- Used in `gawk'.
-
-`read-full-blocks'
- `-B' in `tar'.
-
-`readnow'
- Used in GDB.
-
-`recon'
- `-n' in Make.
-
-`record-number'
- `-R' in `tar'.
-
-`recursive'
- Used in `chgrp', `chown', `cp', `ls', `diff', and `rm'.
-
-`reference-limit'
- Used in `makeinfo'.
-
-`references'
- `-r' in `ptx'.
-
-`regex'
- `-r' in `tac' and `etags'.
-
-`release'
- `-r' in `uname'.
-
-`reload-state'
- `-R' in `m4'.
-
-`relocation'
- `-r' in `objdump'.
-
-`rename'
- `-r' in `cpio'.
-
-`replace'
- `-i' in `xargs'.
-
-`report-identical-files'
- `-s' in `diff'.
-
-`reset-access-time'
- `-a' in `cpio'.
-
-`reverse'
- `-r' in `ls' and `nm'.
-
-`reversed-ed'
- `-f' in `diff'.
-
-`right-side-defs'
- `-R' in `ptx'.
-
-`same-order'
- `-s' in `tar'.
-
-`same-permissions'
- `-p' in `tar'.
-
-`save'
- `-g' in `stty'.
-
-`se'
- Used in GDB.
-
-`sentence-regexp'
- `-S' in `ptx'.
-
-`separate-dirs'
- `-S' in `du'.
-
-`separator'
- `-s' in `tac'.
-
-`sequence'
- Used by `recode' to chose files or pipes for sequencing passes.
-
-`shell'
- `-s' in `su'.
-
-`show-all'
- `-A' in `cat'.
-
-`show-c-function'
- `-p' in `diff'.
-
-`show-ends'
- `-E' in `cat'.
-
-`show-function-line'
- `-F' in `diff'.
-
-`show-tabs'
- `-T' in `cat'.
-
-`silent'
- Used in many programs to inhibit the usual output. *Note_* every
- program accepting `--silent' should accept `--quiet' as a synonym.
-
-`size'
- `-s' in `ls'.
-
-`socket'
- Specify a file descriptor for a network server to use for its
- socket, instead of opening and binding a new socket. This
- provides a way to run, in a nonpriveledged process, a server that
- normally needs a reserved port number.
-
-`sort'
- Used in `ls'.
-
-`source'
- `-W source' in `gawk'.
-
-`sparse'
- `-S' in `tar'.
-
-`speed-large-files'
- `-H' in `diff'.
-
-`split-at'
- `-E' in `unshar'.
-
-`split-size-limit'
- `-L' in `shar'.
-
-`squeeze-blank'
- `-s' in `cat'.
-
-`start-delete'
- `-w' in `wdiff'.
-
-`start-insert'
- `-y' in `wdiff'.
-
-`starting-file'
- Used in `tar' and `diff' to specify which file within a directory
- to start processing with.
-
-`statistics'
- `-s' in `wdiff'.
-
-`stdin-file-list'
- `-S' in `shar'.
-
-`stop'
- `-S' in Make.
-
-`strict'
- `-s' in `recode'.
-
-`strip'
- `-s' in `install'.
-
-`strip-all'
- `-s' in `strip'.
-
-`strip-debug'
- `-S' in `strip'.
-
-`submitter'
- `-s' in `shar'.
-
-`suffix'
- `-S' in `cp', `ln', `mv'.
-
-`suffix-format'
- `-b' in `csplit'.
-
-`sum'
- `-s' in `gprof'.
-
-`summarize'
- `-s' in `du'.
-
-`symbolic'
- `-s' in `ln'.
-
-`symbols'
- Used in GDB and `objdump'.
-
-`synclines'
- `-s' in `m4'.
-
-`sysname'
- `-s' in `uname'.
-
-`tabs'
- `-t' in `expand' and `unexpand'.
-
-`tabsize'
- `-T' in `ls'.
-
-`terminal'
- `-T' in `tput' and `ul'. `-t' in `wdiff'.
-
-`text'
- `-a' in `diff'.
-
-`text-files'
- `-T' in `shar'.
-
-`time'
- Used in `ls' and `touch'.
-
-`timeout'
- Specify how long to wait before giving up on some operation.
-
-`to-stdout'
- `-O' in `tar'.
-
-`total'
- `-c' in `du'.
-
-`touch'
- `-t' in Make, `ranlib', and `recode'.
-
-`trace'
- `-t' in `m4'.
-
-`traditional'
- `-t' in `hello'; `-W traditional' in `gawk'; `-G' in `ed', `m4',
- and `ptx'.
-
-`tty'
- Used in GDB.
-
-`typedefs'
- `-t' in `ctags'.
-
-`typedefs-and-c++'
- `-T' in `ctags'.
-
-`typeset-mode'
- `-t' in `ptx'.
-
-`uncompress'
- `-z' in `tar'.
-
-`unconditional'
- `-u' in `cpio'.
-
-`undefine'
- `-U' in `m4'.
-
-`undefined-only'
- `-u' in `nm'.
-
-`update'
- `-u' in `cp', `ctags', `mv', `tar'.
-
-`usage'
- Used in `gawk'; same as `--help'.
-
-`uuencode'
- `-B' in `shar'.
-
-`vanilla-operation'
- `-V' in `shar'.
-
-`verbose'
- Print more information about progress. Many programs support this.
-
-`verify'
- `-W' in `tar'.
-
-`version'
- Print the version number.
-
-`version-control'
- `-V' in `cp', `ln', `mv'.
-
-`vgrind'
- `-v' in `ctags'.
-
-`volume'
- `-V' in `tar'.
-
-`what-if'
- `-W' in Make.
-
-`whole-size-limit'
- `-l' in `shar'.
-
-`width'
- `-w' in `ls' and `ptx'.
-
-`word-regexp'
- `-W' in `ptx'.
-
-`writable'
- `-T' in `who'.
-
-`zeros'
- `-z' in `gprof'.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Memory Usage, Next: File Usage, Prev: Option Table, Up: Program Behavior
-
-4.8 Memory Usage
-================
-
-If a program typically uses just a few meg of memory, don't bother
-making any effort to reduce memory usage. For example, if it is
-impractical for other reasons to operate on files more than a few meg
-long, it is reasonable to read entire input files into core to operate
-on them.
-
- However, for programs such as `cat' or `tail', that can usefully
-operate on very large files, it is important to avoid using a technique
-that would artificially limit the size of files it can handle. If a
-program works by lines and could be applied to arbitrary user-supplied
-input files, it should keep only a line in memory, because this is not
-very hard and users will want to be able to operate on input files that
-are bigger than will fit in core all at once.
-
- If your program creates complicated data structures, just make them
-in core and give a fatal error if `malloc' returns zero.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: File Usage, Prev: Memory Usage, Up: Program Behavior
-
-4.9 File Usage
-==============
-
-Programs should be prepared to operate when `/usr' and `/etc' are
-read-only file systems. Thus, if the program manages log files, lock
-files, backup files, score files, or any other files which are modified
-for internal purposes, these files should not be stored in `/usr' or
-`/etc'.
-
- There are two exceptions. `/etc' is used to store system
-configuration information; it is reasonable for a program to modify
-files in `/etc' when its job is to update the system configuration.
-Also, if the user explicitly asks to modify one file in a directory, it
-is reasonable for the program to store other files in the same
-directory.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Writing C, Next: Documentation, Prev: Program Behavior, Up: Top
-
-5 Making The Best Use of C
-**************************
-
-This node provides advice on how best to use the C language when
-writing GNU software.
-
-* Menu:
-
-* Formatting:: Formatting Your Source Code
-* Comments:: Commenting Your Work
-* Syntactic Conventions:: Clean Use of C Constructs
-* Names:: Naming Variables, Functions, and Files
-* System Portability:: Portability between different operating systems
-* CPU Portability:: Supporting the range of CPU types
-* System Functions:: Portability and ``standard'' library functions
-* Internationalization:: Techniques for internationalization
-* Mmap:: How you can safely use `mmap'.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Formatting, Next: Comments, Up: Writing C
-
-5.1 Formatting Your Source Code
-===============================
-
-It is important to put the open-brace that starts the body of a C
-function in column zero, and avoid putting any other open-brace or
-open-parenthesis or open-bracket in column zero. Several tools look
-for open-braces in column zero to find the beginnings of C functions.
-These tools will not work on code not formatted that way.
-
- It is also important for function definitions to start the name of
-the function in column zero. This helps people to search for function
-definitions, and may also help certain tools recognize them. Thus, the
-proper format is this:
-
- static char *
- concat (s1, s2) /* Name starts in column zero here */
- char *s1, *s2;
- { /* Open brace in column zero here */
- ...
- }
-
-or, if you want to use Standard C syntax, format the definition like
-this:
-
- static char *
- concat (char *s1, char *s2)
- {
- ...
- }
-
- In Standard C, if the arguments don't fit nicely on one line, split
-it like this:
-
- int
- lots_of_args (int an_integer, long a_long, short a_short,
- double a_double, float a_float)
- ...
-
- The rest of this section gives our recommendations for other aspects
-of C formatting style, which is also the default style of the `indent'
-program in version 1.2 and newer. It corresponds to the options
-
- -nbad -bap -nbc -bbo -bl -bli2 -bls -ncdb -nce -cp1 -cs -di2
- -ndj -nfc1 -nfca -hnl -i2 -ip5 -lp -pcs -psl -nsc -nsob
-
- We don't think of these recommendations as requirements, because it
-causes no problems for users if two different programs have different
-formatting styles.
-
- But whatever style you use, please use it consistently, since a
-mixture of styles within one program tends to look ugly. If you are
-contributing changes to an existing program, please follow the style of
-that program.
-
- For the body of the function, our recommended style looks like this:
-
- if (x < foo (y, z))
- haha = bar[4] + 5;
- else
- {
- while (z)
- {
- haha += foo (z, z);
- z--;
- }
- return ++x + bar ();
- }
-
- We find it easier to read a program when it has spaces before the
-open-parentheses and after the commas. Especially after the commas.
-
- When you split an expression into multiple lines, split it before an
-operator, not after one. Here is the right way:
-
- if (foo_this_is_long && bar > win (x, y, z)
- && remaining_condition)
-
- Try to avoid having two operators of different precedence at the same
-level of indentation. For example, don't write this:
-
- mode = (inmode[j] == VOIDmode
- || GET_MODE_SIZE (outmode[j]) > GET_MODE_SIZE (inmode[j])
- ? outmode[j] : inmode[j]);
-
- Instead, use extra parentheses so that the indentation shows the
-nesting:
-
- mode = ((inmode[j] == VOIDmode
- || (GET_MODE_SIZE (outmode[j]) > GET_MODE_SIZE (inmode[j])))
- ? outmode[j] : inmode[j]);
-
- Insert extra parentheses so that Emacs will indent the code properly.
-For example, the following indentation looks nice if you do it by hand,
-
- v = rup->ru_utime.tv_sec*1000 + rup->ru_utime.tv_usec/1000
- + rup->ru_stime.tv_sec*1000 + rup->ru_stime.tv_usec/1000;
-
-but Emacs would alter it. Adding a set of parentheses produces
-something that looks equally nice, and which Emacs will preserve:
-
- v = (rup->ru_utime.tv_sec*1000 + rup->ru_utime.tv_usec/1000
- + rup->ru_stime.tv_sec*1000 + rup->ru_stime.tv_usec/1000);
-
- Format do-while statements like this:
-
- do
- {
- a = foo (a);
- }
- while (a > 0);
-
- Please use formfeed characters (control-L) to divide the program into
-pages at logical places (but not within a function). It does not matter
-just how long the pages are, since they do not have to fit on a printed
-page. The formfeeds should appear alone on lines by themselves.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Comments, Next: Syntactic Conventions, Prev: Formatting, Up: Writing C
-
-5.2 Commenting Your Work
-========================
-
-Every program should start with a comment saying briefly what it is for.
-Example: `fmt - filter for simple filling of text'.
-
- Please write the comments in a GNU program in English, because
-English is the one language that nearly all programmers in all
-countries can read. If you do not write English well, please write
-comments in English as well as you can, then ask other people to help
-rewrite them. If you can't write comments in English, please find
-someone to work with you and translate your comments into English.
-
- Please put a comment on each function saying what the function does,
-what sorts of arguments it gets, and what the possible values of
-arguments mean and are used for. It is not necessary to duplicate in
-words the meaning of the C argument declarations, if a C type is being
-used in its customary fashion. If there is anything nonstandard about
-its use (such as an argument of type `char *' which is really the
-address of the second character of a string, not the first), or any
-possible values that would not work the way one would expect (such as,
-that strings containing newlines are not guaranteed to work), be sure
-to say so.
-
- Also explain the significance of the return value, if there is one.
-
- Please put two spaces after the end of a sentence in your comments,
-so that the Emacs sentence commands will work. Also, please write
-complete sentences and capitalize the first word. If a lower-case
-identifier comes at the beginning of a sentence, don't capitalize it!
-Changing the spelling makes it a different identifier. If you don't
-like starting a sentence with a lower case letter, write the sentence
-differently (e.g., "The identifier lower-case is ...").
-
- The comment on a function is much clearer if you use the argument
-names to speak about the argument values. The variable name itself
-should be lower case, but write it in upper case when you are speaking
-about the value rather than the variable itself. Thus, "the inode
-number NODE_NUM" rather than "an inode".
-
- There is usually no purpose in restating the name of the function in
-the comment before it, because the reader can see that for himself.
-There might be an exception when the comment is so long that the
-function itself would be off the bottom of the screen.
-
- There should be a comment on each static variable as well, like this:
-
- /* Nonzero means truncate lines in the display;
- zero means continue them. */
- int truncate_lines;
-
- Every `#endif' should have a comment, except in the case of short
-conditionals (just a few lines) that are not nested. The comment should
-state the condition of the conditional that is ending, _including its
-sense_. `#else' should have a comment describing the condition _and
-sense_ of the code that follows. For example:
-
- #ifdef foo
- ...
- #else /* not foo */
- ...
- #endif /* not foo */
- #ifdef foo
- ...
- #endif /* foo */
-
-but, by contrast, write the comments this way for a `#ifndef':
-
- #ifndef foo
- ...
- #else /* foo */
- ...
- #endif /* foo */
- #ifndef foo
- ...
- #endif /* not foo */
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Syntactic Conventions, Next: Names, Prev: Comments, Up: Writing C
-
-5.3 Clean Use of C Constructs
-=============================
-
-Please explicitly declare the types of all objects. For example, you
-should explicitly declare all arguments to functions, and you should
-declare functions to return `int' rather than omitting the `int'.
-
- Some programmers like to use the GCC `-Wall' option, and change the
-code whenever it issues a warning. If you want to do this, then do.
-Other programmers prefer not to use `-Wall', because it gives warnings
-for valid and legitimate code which they do not want to change. If you
-want to do this, then do. The compiler should be your servant, not
-your master.
-
- Declarations of external functions and functions to appear later in
-the source file should all go in one place near the beginning of the
-file (somewhere before the first function definition in the file), or
-else should go in a header file. Don't put `extern' declarations inside
-functions.
-
- It used to be common practice to use the same local variables (with
-names like `tem') over and over for different values within one
-function. Instead of doing this, it is better declare a separate local
-variable for each distinct purpose, and give it a name which is
-meaningful. This not only makes programs easier to understand, it also
-facilitates optimization by good compilers. You can also move the
-declaration of each local variable into the smallest scope that includes
-all its uses. This makes the program even cleaner.
-
- Don't use local variables or parameters that shadow global
-identifiers.
-
- Don't declare multiple variables in one declaration that spans lines.
-Start a new declaration on each line, instead. For example, instead of
-this:
-
- int foo,
- bar;
-
-write either this:
-
- int foo, bar;
-
-or this:
-
- int foo;
- int bar;
-
-(If they are global variables, each should have a comment preceding it
-anyway.)
-
- When you have an `if'-`else' statement nested in another `if'
-statement, always put braces around the `if'-`else'. Thus, never write
-like this:
-
- if (foo)
- if (bar)
- win ();
- else
- lose ();
-
-always like this:
-
- if (foo)
- {
- if (bar)
- win ();
- else
- lose ();
- }
-
- If you have an `if' statement nested inside of an `else' statement,
-either write `else if' on one line, like this,
-
- if (foo)
- ...
- else if (bar)
- ...
-
-with its `then'-part indented like the preceding `then'-part, or write
-the nested `if' within braces like this:
-
- if (foo)
- ...
- else
- {
- if (bar)
- ...
- }
-
- Don't declare both a structure tag and variables or typedefs in the
-same declaration. Instead, declare the structure tag separately and
-then use it to declare the variables or typedefs.
-
- Try to avoid assignments inside `if'-conditions. For example, don't
-write this:
-
- if ((foo = (char *) malloc (sizeof *foo)) == 0)
- fatal ("virtual memory exhausted");
-
-instead, write this:
-
- foo = (char *) malloc (sizeof *foo);
- if (foo == 0)
- fatal ("virtual memory exhausted");
-
- Don't make the program ugly to placate `lint'. Please don't insert
-any casts to `void'. Zero without a cast is perfectly fine as a null
-pointer constant, except when calling a varargs function.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Names, Next: System Portability, Prev: Syntactic Conventions, Up: Writing C
-
-5.4 Naming Variables, Functions, and Files
-==========================================
-
-The names of global variables and functions in a program serve as
-comments of a sort. So don't choose terse names--instead, look for
-names that give useful information about the meaning of the variable or
-function. In a GNU program, names should be English, like other
-comments.
-
- Local variable names can be shorter, because they are used only
-within one context, where (presumably) comments explain their purpose.
-
- Try to limit your use of abbreviations in symbol names. It is ok to
-make a few abbreviations, explain what they mean, and then use them
-frequently, but don't use lots of obscure abbreviations.
-
- Please use underscores to separate words in a name, so that the Emacs
-word commands can be useful within them. Stick to lower case; reserve
-upper case for macros and `enum' constants, and for name-prefixes that
-follow a uniform convention.
-
- For example, you should use names like `ignore_space_change_flag';
-don't use names like `iCantReadThis'.
-
- Variables that indicate whether command-line options have been
-specified should be named after the meaning of the option, not after
-the option-letter. A comment should state both the exact meaning of
-the option and its letter. For example,
-
- /* Ignore changes in horizontal whitespace (-b). */
- int ignore_space_change_flag;
-
- When you want to define names with constant integer values, use
-`enum' rather than `#define'. GDB knows about enumeration constants.
-
- You might want to make sure that none of the file names would
-conflict the files were loaded onto an MS-DOS file system which
-shortens the names. You can use the program `doschk' to test for this.
-
- Some GNU programs were designed to limit themselves to file names of
-14 characters or less, to avoid file name conflicts if they are read
-into older System V systems. Please preserve this feature in the
-existing GNU programs that have it, but there is no need to do this in
-new GNU programs. `doschk' also reports file names longer than 14
-characters.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: System Portability, Next: CPU Portability, Prev: Names, Up: Writing C
-
-5.5 Portability between System Types
-====================================
-
-In the Unix world, "portability" refers to porting to different Unix
-versions. For a GNU program, this kind of portability is desirable, but
-not paramount.
-
- The primary purpose of GNU software is to run on top of the GNU
-kernel, compiled with the GNU C compiler, on various types of CPU. So
-the kinds of portability that are absolutely necessary are quite
-limited. But it is important to support Linux-based GNU systems, since
-they are the form of GNU that is popular.
-
- Beyond that, it is good to support the other free operating systems
-(*BSD), and it is nice to support other Unix-like systems if you want
-to. Supporting a variety of Unix-like systems is desirable, although
-not paramount. It is usually not too hard, so you may as well do it.
-But you don't have to consider it an obligation, if it does turn out to
-be hard.
-
- The easiest way to achieve portability to most Unix-like systems is
-to use Autoconf. It's unlikely that your program needs to know more
-information about the host platform than Autoconf can provide, simply
-because most of the programs that need such knowledge have already been
-written.
-
- Avoid using the format of semi-internal data bases (e.g.,
-directories) when there is a higher-level alternative (`readdir').
-
- As for systems that are not like Unix, such as MSDOS, Windows, the
-Macintosh, VMS, and MVS, supporting them is often a lot of work. When
-that is the case, it is better to spend your time adding features that
-will be useful on GNU and GNU/Linux, rather than on supporting other
-incompatible systems.
-
- It is a good idea to define the "feature test macro" `_GNU_SOURCE'
-when compiling your C files. When you compile on GNU or GNU/Linux,
-this will enable the declarations of GNU library extension functions,
-and that will usually give you a compiler error message if you define
-the same function names in some other way in your program. (You don't
-have to actually _use_ these functions, if you prefer to make the
-program more portable to other systems.)
-
- But whether or not you use these GNU extensions, you should avoid
-using their names for any other meanings. Doing so would make it hard
-to move your code into other GNU programs.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: CPU Portability, Next: System Functions, Prev: System Portability, Up: Writing C
-
-5.6 Portability between CPUs
-============================
-
-Even GNU systems will differ because of differences among CPU
-types--for example, difference in byte ordering and alignment
-requirements. It is absolutely essential to handle these differences.
-However, don't make any effort to cater to the possibility that an
-`int' will be less than 32 bits. We don't support 16-bit machines in
-GNU.
-
- Similarly, don't make any effort to cater to the possibility that
-`long' will be smaller than predefined types like `size_t'. For
-example, the following code is ok:
-
- printf ("size = %lu\n", (unsigned long) sizeof array);
- printf ("diff = %ld\n", (long) (pointer2 - pointer1));
-
- 1989 Standard C requires this to work, and we know of only one
-counterexample: 64-bit programs on Microsoft Windows IA-64. We will
-leave it to those who want to port GNU programs to that environment to
-figure out how to do it.
-
- Predefined file-size types like `off_t' are an exception: they are
-longer than `long' on many platforms, so code like the above won't work
-with them. One way to print an `off_t' value portably is to print its
-digits yourself, one by one.
-
- Don't assume that the address of an `int' object is also the address
-of its least-significant byte. This is false on big-endian machines.
-Thus, don't make the following mistake:
-
- int c;
- ...
- while ((c = getchar()) != EOF)
- write(file_descriptor, &c, 1);
-
- When calling functions, you need not worry about the difference
-between pointers of various types, or between pointers and integers.
-On most machines, there's no difference anyway. As for the few
-machines where there is a difference, all of them support Standard C
-prototypes, so you can use prototypes (perhaps conditionalized to be
-active only in Standard C) to make the code work on those systems.
-
- In certain cases, it is ok to pass integer and pointer arguments
-indiscriminately to the same function, and use no prototype on any
-system. For example, many GNU programs have error-reporting functions
-that pass their arguments along to `printf' and friends:
-
- error (s, a1, a2, a3)
- char *s;
- char *a1, *a2, *a3;
- {
- fprintf (stderr, "error: ");
- fprintf (stderr, s, a1, a2, a3);
- }
-
-In practice, this works on all machines, since a pointer is generally
-the widest possible kind of argument; it is much simpler than any
-"correct" alternative. Be sure _not_ to use a prototype for such
-functions.
-
- If you have decided to use Standard C, then you can instead define
-`error' using `stdarg.h', and pass the arguments along to `vfprintf'.
-
- Avoid casting pointers to integers if you can. Such casts greatly
-reduce portability, and in most programs they are easy to avoid. In the
-cases where casting pointers to integers is essential--such as, a Lisp
-interpreter which stores type information as well as an address in one
-word--you'll have to make explicit provisions to handle different word
-sizes. You will also need to make provision for systems in which the
-normal range of addresses you can get from `malloc' starts far away
-from zero.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: System Functions, Next: Internationalization, Prev: CPU Portability, Up: Writing C
-
-5.7 Calling System Functions
-============================
-
-C implementations differ substantially. Standard C reduces but does
-not eliminate the incompatibilities; meanwhile, many GNU packages still
-support pre-standard compilers because this is not hard to do. This
-chapter gives recommendations for how to use the more-or-less standard C
-library functions to avoid unnecessary loss of portability.
-
- * Don't use the return value of `sprintf'. It returns the number of
- characters written on some systems, but not on all systems.
-
- * Be aware that `vfprintf' is not always available.
-
- * `main' should be declared to return type `int'. It should
- terminate either by calling `exit' or by returning the integer
- status code; make sure it cannot ever return an undefined value.
-
- * Don't declare system functions explicitly.
-
- Almost any declaration for a system function is wrong on some
- system. To minimize conflicts, leave it to the system header
- files to declare system functions. If the headers don't declare a
- function, let it remain undeclared.
-
- While it may seem unclean to use a function without declaring it,
- in practice this works fine for most system library functions on
- the systems where this really happens; thus, the disadvantage is
- only theoretical. By contrast, actual declarations have
- frequently caused actual conflicts.
-
- * If you must declare a system function, don't specify the argument
- types. Use an old-style declaration, not a Standard C prototype.
- The more you specify about the function, the more likely a
- conflict.
-
- * In particular, don't unconditionally declare `malloc' or `realloc'.
-
- Most GNU programs use those functions just once, in functions
- conventionally named `xmalloc' and `xrealloc'. These functions
- call `malloc' and `realloc', respectively, and check the results.
-
- Because `xmalloc' and `xrealloc' are defined in your program, you
- can declare them in other files without any risk of type conflict.
-
- On most systems, `int' is the same length as a pointer; thus, the
- calls to `malloc' and `realloc' work fine. For the few
- exceptional systems (mostly 64-bit machines), you can use
- *conditionalized* declarations of `malloc' and `realloc'--or put
- these declarations in configuration files specific to those
- systems.
-
- * The string functions require special treatment. Some Unix systems
- have a header file `string.h'; others have `strings.h'. Neither
- file name is portable. There are two things you can do: use
- Autoconf to figure out which file to include, or don't include
- either file.
-
- * If you don't include either strings file, you can't get
- declarations for the string functions from the header file in the
- usual way.
-
- That causes less of a problem than you might think. The newer
- standard string functions should be avoided anyway because many
- systems still don't support them. The string functions you can
- use are these:
-
- strcpy strncpy strcat strncat
- strlen strcmp strncmp
- strchr strrchr
-
- The copy and concatenate functions work fine without a declaration
- as long as you don't use their values. Using their values without
- a declaration fails on systems where the width of a pointer
- differs from the width of `int', and perhaps in other cases. It
- is trivial to avoid using their values, so do that.
-
- The compare functions and `strlen' work fine without a declaration
- on most systems, possibly all the ones that GNU software runs on.
- You may find it necessary to declare them *conditionally* on a few
- systems.
-
- The search functions must be declared to return `char *'. Luckily,
- there is no variation in the data type they return. But there is
- variation in their names. Some systems give these functions the
- names `index' and `rindex'; other systems use the names `strchr'
- and `strrchr'. Some systems support both pairs of names, but
- neither pair works on all systems.
-
- You should pick a single pair of names and use it throughout your
- program. (Nowadays, it is better to choose `strchr' and `strrchr'
- for new programs, since those are the standard names.) Declare
- both of those names as functions returning `char *'. On systems
- which don't support those names, define them as macros in terms of
- the other pair. For example, here is what to put at the beginning
- of your file (or in a header) if you want to use the names
- `strchr' and `strrchr' throughout:
-
- #ifndef HAVE_STRCHR
- #define strchr index
- #endif
- #ifndef HAVE_STRRCHR
- #define strrchr rindex
- #endif
-
- char *strchr ();
- char *strrchr ();
-
- Here we assume that `HAVE_STRCHR' and `HAVE_STRRCHR' are macros
-defined in systems where the corresponding functions exist. One way to
-get them properly defined is to use Autoconf.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Internationalization, Next: Mmap, Prev: System Functions, Up: Writing C
-
-5.8 Internationalization
-========================
-
-GNU has a library called GNU gettext that makes it easy to translate the
-messages in a program into various languages. You should use this
-library in every program. Use English for the messages as they appear
-in the program, and let gettext provide the way to translate them into
-other languages.
-
- Using GNU gettext involves putting a call to the `gettext' macro
-around each string that might need translation--like this:
-
- printf (gettext ("Processing file `%s'..."));
-
-This permits GNU gettext to replace the string `"Processing file
-`%s'..."' with a translated version.
-
- Once a program uses gettext, please make a point of writing calls to
-`gettext' when you add new strings that call for translation.
-
- Using GNU gettext in a package involves specifying a "text domain
-name" for the package. The text domain name is used to separate the
-translations for this package from the translations for other packages.
-Normally, the text domain name should be the same as the name of the
-package--for example, `fileutils' for the GNU file utilities.
-
- To enable gettext to work well, avoid writing code that makes
-assumptions about the structure of words or sentences. When you want
-the precise text of a sentence to vary depending on the data, use two or
-more alternative string constants each containing a complete sentences,
-rather than inserting conditionalized words or phrases into a single
-sentence framework.
-
- Here is an example of what not to do:
-
- printf ("%d file%s processed", nfiles,
- nfiles != 1 ? "s" : "");
-
-The problem with that example is that it assumes that plurals are made
-by adding `s'. If you apply gettext to the format string, like this,
-
- printf (gettext ("%d file%s processed"), nfiles,
- nfiles != 1 ? "s" : "");
-
-the message can use different words, but it will still be forced to use
-`s' for the plural. Here is a better way:
-
- printf ((nfiles != 1 ? "%d files processed"
- : "%d file processed"),
- nfiles);
-
-This way, you can apply gettext to each of the two strings
-independently:
-
- printf ((nfiles != 1 ? gettext ("%d files processed")
- : gettext ("%d file processed")),
- nfiles);
-
-This can be any method of forming the plural of the word for "file", and
-also handles languages that require agreement in the word for
-"processed".
-
- A similar problem appears at the level of sentence structure with
-this code:
-
- printf ("# Implicit rule search has%s been done.\n",
- f->tried_implicit ? "" : " not");
-
-Adding `gettext' calls to this code cannot give correct results for all
-languages, because negation in some languages requires adding words at
-more than one place in the sentence. By contrast, adding `gettext'
-calls does the job straightfowardly if the code starts out like this:
-
- printf (f->tried_implicit
- ? "# Implicit rule search has been done.\n",
- : "# Implicit rule search has not been done.\n");
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Mmap, Prev: Internationalization, Up: Writing C
-
-5.9 Mmap
-========
-
-Don't assume that `mmap' either works on all files or fails for all
-files. It may work on some files and fail on others.
-
- The proper way to use `mmap' is to try it on the specific file for
-which you want to use it--and if `mmap' doesn't work, fall back on
-doing the job in another way using `read' and `write'.
-
- The reason this precaution is needed is that the GNU kernel (the
-HURD) provides a user-extensible file system, in which there can be many
-different kinds of "ordinary files." Many of them support `mmap', but
-some do not. It is important to make programs handle all these kinds
-of files.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Documentation, Next: Managing Releases, Prev: Writing C, Up: Top
-
-6 Documenting Programs
-**********************
-
-A GNU program should ideally come with full free documentation, adequate
-for both reference and tutorial purposes. If the package can be
-programmed or extended, the documentation should cover programming or
-extending it, as well as just using it.
-
-* Menu:
-
-* GNU Manuals:: Writing proper manuals.
-* Doc Strings and Manuals:: Compiling doc strings doesn't make a manual.
-* Manual Structure Details:: Specific structure conventions.
-* License for Manuals:: Writing the distribution terms for a manual.
-* Manual Credits:: Giving credit to documentation contributors.
-* Printed Manuals:: Mentioning the printed manual.
-* NEWS File:: NEWS files supplement manuals.
-* Change Logs:: Recording Changes
-* Man Pages:: Man pages are secondary.
-* Reading other Manuals:: How far you can go in learning
- from other manuals.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: GNU Manuals, Next: Doc Strings and Manuals, Up: Documentation
-
-6.1 GNU Manuals
-===============
-
-The preferred document format for the GNU system is the Texinfo
-formatting language. Every GNU package should (ideally) have
-documentation in Texinfo both for reference and for learners. Texinfo
-makes it possible to produce a good quality formatted book, using TeX,
-and to generate an Info file. It is also possible to generate HTML
-output from Texinfo source. See the Texinfo manual, either the
-hardcopy, or the on-line version available through `info' or the Emacs
-Info subsystem (`C-h i').
-
- Nowadays some other formats such as Docbook and Sgmltexi can be
-converted automatically into Texinfo. It is ok to produce the Texinfo
-documentation by conversion this way, as long as it gives good results.
-
- Programmers often find it most natural to structure the documentation
-following the structure of the implementation, which they know. But
-this structure is not necessarily good for explaining how to use the
-program; it may be irrelevant and confusing for a user.
-
- At every level, from the sentences in a paragraph to the grouping of
-topics into separate manuals, the right way to structure documentation
-is according to the concepts and questions that a user will have in mind
-when reading it. Sometimes this structure of ideas matches the
-structure of the implementation of the software being documented--but
-often they are different. Often the most important part of learning to
-write good documentation is learning to notice when you are structuring
-the documentation like the implementation, and think about better
-alternatives.
-
- For example, each program in the GNU system probably ought to be
-documented in one manual; but this does not mean each program should
-have its own manual. That would be following the structure of the
-implementation, rather than the structure that helps the user
-understand.
-
- Instead, each manual should cover a coherent _topic_. For example,
-instead of a manual for `diff' and a manual for `diff3', we have one
-manual for "comparison of files" which covers both of those programs,
-as well as `cmp'. By documenting these programs together, we can make
-the whole subject clearer.
-
- The manual which discusses a program should certainly document all of
-the program's command-line options and all of its commands. It should
-give examples of their use. But don't organize the manual as a list of
-features. Instead, organize it logically, by subtopics. Address the
-questions that a user will ask when thinking about the job that the
-program does.
-
- In general, a GNU manual should serve both as tutorial and reference.
-It should be set up for convenient access to each topic through Info,
-and for reading straight through (appendixes aside). A GNU manual
-should give a good introduction to a beginner reading through from the
-start, and should also provide all the details that hackers want. The
-Bison manual is a good example of this--please take a look at it to see
-what we mean.
-
- That is not as hard as it first sounds. Arrange each chapter as a
-logical breakdown of its topic, but order the sections, and write their
-text, so that reading the chapter straight through makes sense. Do
-likewise when structuring the book into chapters, and when structuring a
-section into paragraphs. The watchword is, _at each point, address the
-most fundamental and important issue raised by the preceding text._
-
- If necessary, add extra chapters at the beginning of the manual which
-are purely tutorial and cover the basics of the subject. These provide
-the framework for a beginner to understand the rest of the manual. The
-Bison manual provides a good example of how to do this.
-
- To serve as a reference, a manual should have an Index that list all
-the functions, variables, options, and important concepts that are part
-of the program. One combined Index should do for a short manual, but
-sometimes for a complex package it is better to use multiple indices.
-The Texinfo manual includes advice on preparing good index entries, see
-*Note Making Index Entries: (texinfo)Index Entries, and see *Note
-Defining the Entries of an Index: (texinfo)Indexing Commands.
-
- Don't use Unix man pages as a model for how to write GNU
-documentation; most of them are terse, badly structured, and give
-inadequate explanation of the underlying concepts. (There are, of
-course, some exceptions.) Also, Unix man pages use a particular format
-which is different from what we use in GNU manuals.
-
- Please include an email address in the manual for where to report
-bugs _in the manual_.
-
- Please do not use the term "pathname" that is used in Unix
-documentation; use "file name" (two words) instead. We use the term
-"path" only for search paths, which are lists of directory names.
-
- Please do not use the term "illegal" to refer to erroneous input to a
-computer program. Please use "invalid" for this, and reserve the term
-"illegal" for activities punishable by law.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Doc Strings and Manuals, Next: Manual Structure Details, Prev: GNU Manuals, Up: Documentation
-
-6.2 Doc Strings and Manuals
-===========================
-
-Some programming systems, such as Emacs, provide a documentation string
-for each function, command or variable. You may be tempted to write a
-reference manual by compiling the documentation strings and writing a
-little additional text to go around them--but you must not do it. That
-approach is a fundamental mistake. The text of well-written
-documentation strings will be entirely wrong for a manual.
-
- A documentation string needs to stand alone--when it appears on the
-screen, there will be no other text to introduce or explain it.
-Meanwhile, it can be rather informal in style.
-
- The text describing a function or variable in a manual must not stand
-alone; it appears in the context of a section or subsection. Other text
-at the beginning of the section should explain some of the concepts, and
-should often make some general points that apply to several functions or
-variables. The previous descriptions of functions and variables in the
-section will also have given information about the topic. A description
-written to stand alone would repeat some of that information; this
-redundance looks bad. Meanwhile, the informality that is acceptable in
-a documentation string is totally unacceptable in a manual.
-
- The only good way to use documentation strings in writing a good
-manual is to use them as a source of information for writing good text.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Manual Structure Details, Next: License for Manuals, Prev: Doc Strings and Manuals, Up: Documentation
-
-6.3 Manual Structure Details
-============================
-
-The title page of the manual should state the version of the programs or
-packages documented in the manual. The Top node of the manual should
-also contain this information. If the manual is changing more
-frequently than or independent of the program, also state a version
-number for the manual in both of these places.
-
- Each program documented in the manual should have a node named
-`PROGRAM Invocation' or `Invoking PROGRAM'. This node (together with
-its subnodes, if any) should describe the program's command line
-arguments and how to run it (the sort of information people would look
-in a man page for). Start with an `@example' containing a template for
-all the options and arguments that the program uses.
-
- Alternatively, put a menu item in some menu whose item name fits one
-of the above patterns. This identifies the node which that item points
-to as the node for this purpose, regardless of the node's actual name.
-
- The `--usage' feature of the Info reader looks for such a node or
-menu item in order to find the relevant text, so it is essential for
-every Texinfo file to have one.
-
- If one manual describes several programs, it should have such a node
-for each program described in the manual.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: License for Manuals, Next: Manual Credits, Prev: Manual Structure Details, Up: Documentation
-
-6.4 License for Manuals
-=======================
-
-Please use the GNU Free Documentation License for all GNU manuals that
-are more than a few pages long. Likewise for a collection of short
-documents--you only need one copy of the GNU FDL for the whole
-collection. For a single short document, you can use a very permissive
-non-copyleft license, to avoid taking up space with a long license.
-
- See `http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl-howto.html' for more explanation
-of how to employ the GFDL.
-
- Note that it is not obligatory to include a copy of the GNU GPL or
-GNU LGPL in a manual whose license is neither the GPL nor the LGPL. It
-can be a good idea to include the program's license in a large manual;
-in a short manual, whose size would be increased considerably by
-including the program's license, it is probably better not to include
-it.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Manual Credits, Next: Printed Manuals, Prev: License for Manuals, Up: Documentation
-
-6.5 Manual Credits
-==================
-
-Please credit the principal human writers of the manual as the authors,
-on the title page of the manual. If a company sponsored the work, thank
-the company in a suitable place in the manual, but do not cite the
-company as an author.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Printed Manuals, Next: NEWS File, Prev: Manual Credits, Up: Documentation
-
-6.6 Printed Manuals
-===================
-
-The FSF publishes some GNU manuals in printed form. To encourage sales
-of these manuals, the on-line versions of the manual should mention at
-the very start that the printed manual is available and should point at
-information for getting it--for instance, with a link to the page
-`http://www.gnu.org/order/order.html'. This should not be included in
-the printed manual, though, because there it is redundant.
-
- It is also useful to explain in the on-line forms of the manual how
-the user can print out the manual from the sources.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: NEWS File, Next: Change Logs, Prev: Printed Manuals, Up: Documentation
-
-6.7 The NEWS File
-=================
-
-In addition to its manual, the package should have a file named `NEWS'
-which contains a list of user-visible changes worth mentioning. In
-each new release, add items to the front of the file and identify the
-version they pertain to. Don't discard old items; leave them in the
-file after the newer items. This way, a user upgrading from any
-previous version can see what is new.
-
- If the `NEWS' file gets very long, move some of the older items into
-a file named `ONEWS' and put a note at the end referring the user to
-that file.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Change Logs, Next: Man Pages, Prev: NEWS File, Up: Documentation
-
-6.8 Change Logs
-===============
-
-Keep a change log to describe all the changes made to program source
-files. The purpose of this is so that people investigating bugs in the
-future will know about the changes that might have introduced the bug.
-Often a new bug can be found by looking at what was recently changed.
-More importantly, change logs can help you eliminate conceptual
-inconsistencies between different parts of a program, by giving you a
-history of how the conflicting concepts arose and who they came from.
-
-* Menu:
-
-* Change Log Concepts::
-* Style of Change Logs::
-* Simple Changes::
-* Conditional Changes::
-* Indicating the Part Changed::
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Change Log Concepts, Next: Style of Change Logs, Up: Change Logs
-
-6.8.1 Change Log Concepts
--------------------------
-
-You can think of the change log as a conceptual "undo list" which
-explains how earlier versions were different from the current version.
-People can see the current version; they don't need the change log to
-tell them what is in it. What they want from a change log is a clear
-explanation of how the earlier version differed.
-
- The change log file is normally called `ChangeLog' and covers an
-entire directory. Each directory can have its own change log, or a
-directory can use the change log of its parent directory-it's up to you.
-
- Another alternative is to record change log information with a
-version control system such as RCS or CVS. This can be converted
-automatically to a `ChangeLog' file using `rcs2log'; in Emacs, the
-command `C-x v a' (`vc-update-change-log') does the job.
-
- There's no need to describe the full purpose of the changes or how
-they work together. If you think that a change calls for explanation,
-you're probably right. Please do explain it--but please put the
-explanation in comments in the code, where people will see it whenever
-they see the code. For example, "New function" is enough for the
-change log when you add a function, because there should be a comment
-before the function definition to explain what it does.
-
- However, sometimes it is useful to write one line to describe the
-overall purpose of a batch of changes.
-
- The easiest way to add an entry to `ChangeLog' is with the Emacs
-command `M-x add-change-log-entry'. An entry should have an asterisk,
-the name of the changed file, and then in parentheses the name of the
-changed functions, variables or whatever, followed by a colon. Then
-describe the changes you made to that function or variable.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Style of Change Logs, Next: Simple Changes, Prev: Change Log Concepts, Up: Change Logs
-
-6.8.2 Style of Change Logs
---------------------------
-
-Here are some simple examples of change log entries, starting with the
-header line that says who made the change and when, followed by
-descriptions of specific changes. (These examples are drawn from Emacs
-and GCC.)
-
- 1998-08-17 Richard Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
-
- * register.el (insert-register): Return nil.
- (jump-to-register): Likewise.
-
- * sort.el (sort-subr): Return nil.
-
- * tex-mode.el (tex-bibtex-file, tex-file, tex-region):
- Restart the tex shell if process is gone or stopped.
- (tex-shell-running): New function.
-
- * expr.c (store_one_arg): Round size up for move_block_to_reg.
- (expand_call): Round up when emitting USE insns.
- * stmt.c (assign_parms): Round size up for move_block_from_reg.
-
- It's important to name the changed function or variable in full.
-Don't abbreviate function or variable names, and don't combine them.
-Subsequent maintainers will often search for a function name to find all
-the change log entries that pertain to it; if you abbreviate the name,
-they won't find it when they search.
-
- For example, some people are tempted to abbreviate groups of function
-names by writing `* register.el ({insert,jump-to}-register)'; this is
-not a good idea, since searching for `jump-to-register' or
-`insert-register' would not find that entry.
-
- Separate unrelated change log entries with blank lines. When two
-entries represent parts of the same change, so that they work together,
-then don't put blank lines between them. Then you can omit the file
-name and the asterisk when successive entries are in the same file.
-
- Break long lists of function names by closing continued lines with
-`)', rather than `,', and opening the continuation with `(' as in this
-example:
-
- * keyboard.c (menu_bar_items, tool_bar_items)
- (Fexecute_extended_command): Deal with `keymap' property.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Simple Changes, Next: Conditional Changes, Prev: Style of Change Logs, Up: Change Logs
-
-6.8.3 Simple Changes
---------------------
-
-Certain simple kinds of changes don't need much detail in the change
-log.
-
- When you change the calling sequence of a function in a simple
-fashion, and you change all the callers of the function to use the new
-calling sequence, there is no need to make individual entries for all
-the callers that you changed. Just write in the entry for the function
-being called, "All callers changed"--like this:
-
- * keyboard.c (Fcommand_execute): New arg SPECIAL.
- All callers changed.
-
- When you change just comments or doc strings, it is enough to write
-an entry for the file, without mentioning the functions. Just "Doc
-fixes" is enough for the change log.
-
- There's no need to make change log entries for documentation files.
-This is because documentation is not susceptible to bugs that are hard
-to fix. Documentation does not consist of parts that must interact in a
-precisely engineered fashion. To correct an error, you need not know
-the history of the erroneous passage; it is enough to compare what the
-documentation says with the way the program actually works.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Conditional Changes, Next: Indicating the Part Changed, Prev: Simple Changes, Up: Change Logs
-
-6.8.4 Conditional Changes
--------------------------
-
-C programs often contain compile-time `#if' conditionals. Many changes
-are conditional; sometimes you add a new definition which is entirely
-contained in a conditional. It is very useful to indicate in the
-change log the conditions for which the change applies.
-
- Our convention for indicating conditional changes is to use square
-brackets around the name of the condition.
-
- Here is a simple example, describing a change which is conditional
-but does not have a function or entity name associated with it:
-
- * xterm.c [SOLARIS2]: Include string.h.
-
- Here is an entry describing a new definition which is entirely
-conditional. This new definition for the macro `FRAME_WINDOW_P' is
-used only when `HAVE_X_WINDOWS' is defined:
-
- * frame.h [HAVE_X_WINDOWS] (FRAME_WINDOW_P): Macro defined.
-
- Here is an entry for a change within the function `init_display',
-whose definition as a whole is unconditional, but the changes themselves
-are contained in a `#ifdef HAVE_LIBNCURSES' conditional:
-
- * dispnew.c (init_display) [HAVE_LIBNCURSES]: If X, call tgetent.
-
- Here is an entry for a change that takes affect only when a certain
-macro is _not_ defined:
-
- (gethostname) [!HAVE_SOCKETS]: Replace with winsock version.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Indicating the Part Changed, Prev: Conditional Changes, Up: Change Logs
-
-6.8.5 Indicating the Part Changed
----------------------------------
-
-Indicate the part of a function which changed by using angle brackets
-enclosing an indication of what the changed part does. Here is an entry
-for a change in the part of the function `sh-while-getopts' that deals
-with `sh' commands:
-
- * progmodes/sh-script.el (sh-while-getopts) <sh>: Handle case that
- user-specified option string is empty.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Man Pages, Next: Reading other Manuals, Prev: Change Logs, Up: Documentation
-
-6.9 Man Pages
-=============
-
-In the GNU project, man pages are secondary. It is not necessary or
-expected for every GNU program to have a man page, but some of them do.
-It's your choice whether to include a man page in your program.
-
- When you make this decision, consider that supporting a man page
-requires continual effort each time the program is changed. The time
-you spend on the man page is time taken away from more useful work.
-
- For a simple program which changes little, updating the man page may
-be a small job. Then there is little reason not to include a man page,
-if you have one.
-
- For a large program that changes a great deal, updating a man page
-may be a substantial burden. If a user offers to donate a man page,
-you may find this gift costly to accept. It may be better to refuse
-the man page unless the same person agrees to take full responsibility
-for maintaining it--so that you can wash your hands of it entirely. If
-this volunteer later ceases to do the job, then don't feel obliged to
-pick it up yourself; it may be better to withdraw the man page from the
-distribution until someone else agrees to update it.
-
- When a program changes only a little, you may feel that the
-discrepancies are small enough that the man page remains useful without
-updating. If so, put a prominent note near the beginning of the man
-page explaining that you don't maintain it and that the Texinfo manual
-is more authoritative. The note should say how to access the Texinfo
-documentation.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Reading other Manuals, Prev: Man Pages, Up: Documentation
-
-6.10 Reading other Manuals
-==========================
-
-There may be non-free books or documentation files that describe the
-program you are documenting.
-
- It is ok to use these documents for reference, just as the author of
-a new algebra textbook can read other books on algebra. A large portion
-of any non-fiction book consists of facts, in this case facts about how
-a certain program works, and these facts are necessarily the same for
-everyone who writes about the subject. But be careful not to copy your
-outline structure, wording, tables or examples from preexisting non-free
-documentation. Copying from free documentation may be ok; please check
-with the FSF about the individual case.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Managing Releases, Next: References, Prev: Documentation, Up: Top
-
-7 The Release Process
-*********************
-
-Making a release is more than just bundling up your source files in a
-tar file and putting it up for FTP. You should set up your software so
-that it can be configured to run on a variety of systems. Your Makefile
-should conform to the GNU standards described below, and your directory
-layout should also conform to the standards discussed below. Doing so
-makes it easy to include your package into the larger framework of all
-GNU software.
-
-* Menu:
-
-* Configuration:: How Configuration Should Work
-* Makefile Conventions:: Makefile Conventions
-* Releases:: Making Releases
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Configuration, Next: Makefile Conventions, Up: Managing Releases
-
-7.1 How Configuration Should Work
-=================================
-
-Each GNU distribution should come with a shell script named
-`configure'. This script is given arguments which describe the kind of
-machine and system you want to compile the program for.
-
- The `configure' script must record the configuration options so that
-they affect compilation.
-
- One way to do this is to make a link from a standard name such as
-`config.h' to the proper configuration file for the chosen system. If
-you use this technique, the distribution should _not_ contain a file
-named `config.h'. This is so that people won't be able to build the
-program without configuring it first.
-
- Another thing that `configure' can do is to edit the Makefile. If
-you do this, the distribution should _not_ contain a file named
-`Makefile'. Instead, it should include a file `Makefile.in' which
-contains the input used for editing. Once again, this is so that people
-won't be able to build the program without configuring it first.
-
- If `configure' does write the `Makefile', then `Makefile' should
-have a target named `Makefile' which causes `configure' to be rerun,
-setting up the same configuration that was set up last time. The files
-that `configure' reads should be listed as dependencies of `Makefile'.
-
- All the files which are output from the `configure' script should
-have comments at the beginning explaining that they were generated
-automatically using `configure'. This is so that users won't think of
-trying to edit them by hand.
-
- The `configure' script should write a file named `config.status'
-which describes which configuration options were specified when the
-program was last configured. This file should be a shell script which,
-if run, will recreate the same configuration.
-
- The `configure' script should accept an option of the form
-`--srcdir=DIRNAME' to specify the directory where sources are found (if
-it is not the current directory). This makes it possible to build the
-program in a separate directory, so that the actual source directory is
-not modified.
-
- If the user does not specify `--srcdir', then `configure' should
-check both `.' and `..' to see if it can find the sources. If it finds
-the sources in one of these places, it should use them from there.
-Otherwise, it should report that it cannot find the sources, and should
-exit with nonzero status.
-
- Usually the easy way to support `--srcdir' is by editing a
-definition of `VPATH' into the Makefile. Some rules may need to refer
-explicitly to the specified source directory. To make this possible,
-`configure' can add to the Makefile a variable named `srcdir' whose
-value is precisely the specified directory.
-
- The `configure' script should also take an argument which specifies
-the type of system to build the program for. This argument should look
-like this:
-
- CPU-COMPANY-SYSTEM
-
- For example, a Sun 3 might be `m68k-sun-sunos4.1'.
-
- The `configure' script needs to be able to decode all plausible
-alternatives for how to describe a machine. Thus, `sun3-sunos4.1'
-would be a valid alias. For many programs, `vax-dec-ultrix' would be
-an alias for `vax-dec-bsd', simply because the differences between
-Ultrix and BSD are rarely noticeable, but a few programs might need to
-distinguish them.
-
- There is a shell script called `config.sub' that you can use as a
-subroutine to validate system types and canonicalize aliases.
-
- Other options are permitted to specify in more detail the software
-or hardware present on the machine, and include or exclude optional
-parts of the package:
-
-`--enable-FEATURE[=PARAMETER]'
- Configure the package to build and install an optional user-level
- facility called FEATURE. This allows users to choose which
- optional features to include. Giving an optional PARAMETER of
- `no' should omit FEATURE, if it is built by default.
-
- No `--enable' option should *ever* cause one feature to replace
- another. No `--enable' option should ever substitute one useful
- behavior for another useful behavior. The only proper use for
- `--enable' is for questions of whether to build part of the program
- or exclude it.
-
-`--with-PACKAGE'
- The package PACKAGE will be installed, so configure this package
- to work with PACKAGE.
-
- Possible values of PACKAGE include `gnu-as' (or `gas'), `gnu-ld',
- `gnu-libc', `gdb', `x', and `x-toolkit'.
-
- Do not use a `--with' option to specify the file name to use to
- find certain files. That is outside the scope of what `--with'
- options are for.
-
- All `configure' scripts should accept all of these "detail" options,
-whether or not they make any difference to the particular package at
-hand. In particular, they should accept any option that starts with
-`--with-' or `--enable-'. This is so users will be able to configure
-an entire GNU source tree at once with a single set of options.
-
- You will note that the categories `--with-' and `--enable-' are
-narrow: they *do not* provide a place for any sort of option you might
-think of. That is deliberate. We want to limit the possible
-configuration options in GNU software. We do not want GNU programs to
-have idiosyncratic configuration options.
-
- Packages that perform part of the compilation process may support
-cross-compilation. In such a case, the host and target machines for the
-program may be different.
-
- The `configure' script should normally treat the specified type of
-system as both the host and the target, thus producing a program which
-works for the same type of machine that it runs on.
-
- To configure a cross-compiler, cross-assembler, or what have you, you
-should specify a target different from the host, using the configure
-option `--target=TARGETTYPE'. The syntax for TARGETTYPE is the same as
-for the host type. So the command would look like this:
-
- ./configure HOSTTYPE --target=TARGETTYPE
-
- Programs for which cross-operation is not meaningful need not accept
-the `--target' option, because configuring an entire operating system
-for cross-operation is not a meaningful operation.
-
- Bootstrapping a cross-compiler requires compiling it on a machine
-other than the host it will run on. Compilation packages accept a
-configuration option `--build=BUILDTYPE' for specifying the
-configuration on which you will compile them, but the configure script
-should normally guess the build machine type (using `config.guess'), so
-this option is probably not necessary. The host and target types
-normally default from the build type, so in bootstrapping a
-cross-compiler you must specify them both explicitly.
-
- Some programs have ways of configuring themselves automatically. If
-your program is set up to do this, your `configure' script can simply
-ignore most of its arguments.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Makefile Conventions, Next: Releases, Prev: Configuration, Up: Managing Releases
-
-7.2 Makefile Conventions
-========================
-
-This node describes conventions for writing the Makefiles for GNU
-programs. Using Automake will help you write a Makefile that follows
-these conventions.
-
-* Menu:
-
-* Makefile Basics:: General Conventions for Makefiles
-* Utilities in Makefiles:: Utilities in Makefiles
-* Command Variables:: Variables for Specifying Commands
-* Directory Variables:: Variables for Installation Directories
-* Standard Targets:: Standard Targets for Users
-* Install Command Categories:: Three categories of commands in the `install'
- rule: normal, pre-install and post-install.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Makefile Basics, Next: Utilities in Makefiles, Up: Makefile Conventions
-
-7.2.1 General Conventions for Makefiles
----------------------------------------
-
-Every Makefile should contain this line:
-
- SHELL = /bin/sh
-
-to avoid trouble on systems where the `SHELL' variable might be
-inherited from the environment. (This is never a problem with GNU
-`make'.)
-
- Different `make' programs have incompatible suffix lists and
-implicit rules, and this sometimes creates confusion or misbehavior. So
-it is a good idea to set the suffix list explicitly using only the
-suffixes you need in the particular Makefile, like this:
-
- .SUFFIXES:
- .SUFFIXES: .c .o
-
-The first line clears out the suffix list, the second introduces all
-suffixes which may be subject to implicit rules in this Makefile.
-
- Don't assume that `.' is in the path for command execution. When
-you need to run programs that are a part of your package during the
-make, please make sure that it uses `./' if the program is built as
-part of the make or `$(srcdir)/' if the file is an unchanging part of
-the source code. Without one of these prefixes, the current search
-path is used.
-
- The distinction between `./' (the "build directory") and
-`$(srcdir)/' (the "source directory") is important because users can
-build in a separate directory using the `--srcdir' option to
-`configure'. A rule of the form:
-
- foo.1 : foo.man sedscript
- sed -e sedscript foo.man > foo.1
-
-will fail when the build directory is not the source directory, because
-`foo.man' and `sedscript' are in the source directory.
-
- When using GNU `make', relying on `VPATH' to find the source file
-will work in the case where there is a single dependency file, since
-the `make' automatic variable `$<' will represent the source file
-wherever it is. (Many versions of `make' set `$<' only in implicit
-rules.) A Makefile target like
-
- foo.o : bar.c
- $(CC) -I. -I$(srcdir) $(CFLAGS) -c bar.c -o foo.o
-
-should instead be written as
-
- foo.o : bar.c
- $(CC) -I. -I$(srcdir) $(CFLAGS) -c $< -o $@
-
-in order to allow `VPATH' to work correctly. When the target has
-multiple dependencies, using an explicit `$(srcdir)' is the easiest way
-to make the rule work well. For example, the target above for `foo.1'
-is best written as:
-
- foo.1 : foo.man sedscript
- sed -e $(srcdir)/sedscript $(srcdir)/foo.man > $@
-
- GNU distributions usually contain some files which are not source
-files--for example, Info files, and the output from Autoconf, Automake,
-Bison or Flex. Since these files normally appear in the source
-directory, they should always appear in the source directory, not in the
-build directory. So Makefile rules to update them should put the
-updated files in the source directory.
-
- However, if a file does not appear in the distribution, then the
-Makefile should not put it in the source directory, because building a
-program in ordinary circumstances should not modify the source directory
-in any way.
-
- Try to make the build and installation targets, at least (and all
-their subtargets) work correctly with a parallel `make'.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Utilities in Makefiles, Next: Command Variables, Prev: Makefile Basics, Up: Makefile Conventions
-
-7.2.2 Utilities in Makefiles
-----------------------------
-
-Write the Makefile commands (and any shell scripts, such as
-`configure') to run in `sh', not in `csh'. Don't use any special
-features of `ksh' or `bash'.
-
- The `configure' script and the Makefile rules for building and
-installation should not use any utilities directly except these:
-
- cat cmp cp diff echo egrep expr false grep install-info
- ln ls mkdir mv pwd rm rmdir sed sleep sort tar test touch true
-
- The compression program `gzip' can be used in the `dist' rule.
-
- Stick to the generally supported options for these programs. For
-example, don't use `mkdir -p', convenient as it may be, because most
-systems don't support it.
-
- It is a good idea to avoid creating symbolic links in makefiles,
-since a few systems don't support them.
-
- The Makefile rules for building and installation can also use
-compilers and related programs, but should do so via `make' variables
-so that the user can substitute alternatives. Here are some of the
-programs we mean:
-
- ar bison cc flex install ld ldconfig lex
- make makeinfo ranlib texi2dvi yacc
-
- Use the following `make' variables to run those programs:
-
- $(AR) $(BISON) $(CC) $(FLEX) $(INSTALL) $(LD) $(LDCONFIG) $(LEX)
- $(MAKE) $(MAKEINFO) $(RANLIB) $(TEXI2DVI) $(YACC)
-
- When you use `ranlib' or `ldconfig', you should make sure nothing
-bad happens if the system does not have the program in question.
-Arrange to ignore an error from that command, and print a message before
-the command to tell the user that failure of this command does not mean
-a problem. (The Autoconf `AC_PROG_RANLIB' macro can help with this.)
-
- If you use symbolic links, you should implement a fallback for
-systems that don't have symbolic links.
-
- Additional utilities that can be used via Make variables are:
-
- chgrp chmod chown mknod
-
- It is ok to use other utilities in Makefile portions (or scripts)
-intended only for particular systems where you know those utilities
-exist.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Command Variables, Next: Directory Variables, Prev: Utilities in Makefiles, Up: Makefile Conventions
-
-7.2.3 Variables for Specifying Commands
----------------------------------------
-
-Makefiles should provide variables for overriding certain commands,
-options, and so on.
-
- In particular, you should run most utility programs via variables.
-Thus, if you use Bison, have a variable named `BISON' whose default
-value is set with `BISON = bison', and refer to it with `$(BISON)'
-whenever you need to use Bison.
-
- File management utilities such as `ln', `rm', `mv', and so on, need
-not be referred to through variables in this way, since users don't
-need to replace them with other programs.
-
- Each program-name variable should come with an options variable that
-is used to supply options to the program. Append `FLAGS' to the
-program-name variable name to get the options variable name--for
-example, `BISONFLAGS'. (The names `CFLAGS' for the C compiler,
-`YFLAGS' for yacc, and `LFLAGS' for lex, are exceptions to this rule,
-but we keep them because they are standard.) Use `CPPFLAGS' in any
-compilation command that runs the preprocessor, and use `LDFLAGS' in
-any compilation command that does linking as well as in any direct use
-of `ld'.
-
- If there are C compiler options that _must_ be used for proper
-compilation of certain files, do not include them in `CFLAGS'. Users
-expect to be able to specify `CFLAGS' freely themselves. Instead,
-arrange to pass the necessary options to the C compiler independently
-of `CFLAGS', by writing them explicitly in the compilation commands or
-by defining an implicit rule, like this:
-
- CFLAGS = -g
- ALL_CFLAGS = -I. $(CFLAGS)
- .c.o:
- $(CC) -c $(CPPFLAGS) $(ALL_CFLAGS) $<
-
- Do include the `-g' option in `CFLAGS', because that is not
-_required_ for proper compilation. You can consider it a default that
-is only recommended. If the package is set up so that it is compiled
-with GCC by default, then you might as well include `-O' in the default
-value of `CFLAGS' as well.
-
- Put `CFLAGS' last in the compilation command, after other variables
-containing compiler options, so the user can use `CFLAGS' to override
-the others.
-
- `CFLAGS' should be used in every invocation of the C compiler, both
-those which do compilation and those which do linking.
-
- Every Makefile should define the variable `INSTALL', which is the
-basic command for installing a file into the system.
-
- Every Makefile should also define the variables `INSTALL_PROGRAM'
-and `INSTALL_DATA'. (The default for `INSTALL_PROGRAM' should be
-`$(INSTALL)'; the default for `INSTALL_DATA' should be `${INSTALL} -m
-644'.) Then it should use those variables as the commands for actual
-installation, for executables and nonexecutables respectively. Use
-these variables as follows:
-
- $(INSTALL_PROGRAM) foo $(bindir)/foo
- $(INSTALL_DATA) libfoo.a $(libdir)/libfoo.a
-
- Optionally, you may prepend the value of `DESTDIR' to the target
-filename. Doing this allows the installer to create a snapshot of the
-installation to be copied onto the real target filesystem later. Do not
-set the value of `DESTDIR' in your Makefile, and do not include it in
-any installed files. With support for `DESTDIR', the above examples
-become:
-
- $(INSTALL_PROGRAM) foo $(DESTDIR)$(bindir)/foo
- $(INSTALL_DATA) libfoo.a $(DESTDIR)$(libdir)/libfoo.a
-
-Always use a file name, not a directory name, as the second argument of
-the installation commands. Use a separate command for each file to be
-installed.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Directory Variables, Next: Standard Targets, Prev: Command Variables, Up: Makefile Conventions
-
-7.2.4 Variables for Installation Directories
---------------------------------------------
-
-Installation directories should always be named by variables, so it is
-easy to install in a nonstandard place. The standard names for these
-variables are described below. They are based on a standard filesystem
-layout; variants of it are used in SVR4, 4.4BSD, GNU/Linux, Ultrix v4,
-and other modern operating systems.
-
- These two variables set the root for the installation. All the other
-installation directories should be subdirectories of one of these two,
-and nothing should be directly installed into these two directories.
-
-`prefix'
- A prefix used in constructing the default values of the variables
- listed below. The default value of `prefix' should be
- `/usr/local'. When building the complete GNU system, the prefix
- will be empty and `/usr' will be a symbolic link to `/'. (If you
- are using Autoconf, write it as `@prefix@'.)
-
- Running `make install' with a different value of `prefix' from the
- one used to build the program should _not_ recompile the program.
-
-`exec_prefix'
- A prefix used in constructing the default values of some of the
- variables listed below. The default value of `exec_prefix' should
- be `$(prefix)'. (If you are using Autoconf, write it as
- `@exec_prefix@'.)
-
- Generally, `$(exec_prefix)' is used for directories that contain
- machine-specific files (such as executables and subroutine
- libraries), while `$(prefix)' is used directly for other
- directories.
-
- Running `make install' with a different value of `exec_prefix'
- from the one used to build the program should _not_ recompile the
- program.
-
- Executable programs are installed in one of the following
-directories.
-
-`bindir'
- The directory for installing executable programs that users can
- run. This should normally be `/usr/local/bin', but write it as
- `$(exec_prefix)/bin'. (If you are using Autoconf, write it as
- `@bindir@'.)
-
-`sbindir'
- The directory for installing executable programs that can be run
- from the shell, but are only generally useful to system
- administrators. This should normally be `/usr/local/sbin', but
- write it as `$(exec_prefix)/sbin'. (If you are using Autoconf,
- write it as `@sbindir@'.)
-
-`libexecdir'
- The directory for installing executable programs to be run by other
- programs rather than by users. This directory should normally be
- `/usr/local/libexec', but write it as `$(exec_prefix)/libexec'.
- (If you are using Autoconf, write it as `@libexecdir@'.)
-
- Data files used by the program during its execution are divided into
-categories in two ways.
-
- * Some files are normally modified by programs; others are never
- normally modified (though users may edit some of these).
-
- * Some files are architecture-independent and can be shared by all
- machines at a site; some are architecture-dependent and can be
- shared only by machines of the same kind and operating system;
- others may never be shared between two machines.
-
- This makes for six different possibilities. However, we want to
-discourage the use of architecture-dependent files, aside from object
-files and libraries. It is much cleaner to make other data files
-architecture-independent, and it is generally not hard.
-
- Therefore, here are the variables Makefiles should use to specify
-directories:
-
-`datadir'
- The directory for installing read-only architecture independent
- data files. This should normally be `/usr/local/share', but write
- it as `$(prefix)/share'. (If you are using Autoconf, write it as
- `@datadir@'.) As a special exception, see `$(infodir)' and
- `$(includedir)' below.
-
-`sysconfdir'
- The directory for installing read-only data files that pertain to a
- single machine-that is to say, files for configuring a host.
- Mailer and network configuration files, `/etc/passwd', and so
- forth belong here. All the files in this directory should be
- ordinary ASCII text files. This directory should normally be
- `/usr/local/etc', but write it as `$(prefix)/etc'. (If you are
- using Autoconf, write it as `@sysconfdir@'.)
-
- Do not install executables here in this directory (they probably
- belong in `$(libexecdir)' or `$(sbindir)'). Also do not install
- files that are modified in the normal course of their use (programs
- whose purpose is to change the configuration of the system
- excluded). Those probably belong in `$(localstatedir)'.
-
-`sharedstatedir'
- The directory for installing architecture-independent data files
- which the programs modify while they run. This should normally be
- `/usr/local/com', but write it as `$(prefix)/com'. (If you are
- using Autoconf, write it as `@sharedstatedir@'.)
-
-`localstatedir'
- The directory for installing data files which the programs modify
- while they run, and that pertain to one specific machine. Users
- should never need to modify files in this directory to configure
- the package's operation; put such configuration information in
- separate files that go in `$(datadir)' or `$(sysconfdir)'.
- `$(localstatedir)' should normally be `/usr/local/var', but write
- it as `$(prefix)/var'. (If you are using Autoconf, write it as
- `@localstatedir@'.)
-
-`libdir'
- The directory for object files and libraries of object code. Do
- not install executables here, they probably ought to go in
- `$(libexecdir)' instead. The value of `libdir' should normally be
- `/usr/local/lib', but write it as `$(exec_prefix)/lib'. (If you
- are using Autoconf, write it as `@libdir@'.)
-
-`infodir'
- The directory for installing the Info files for this package. By
- default, it should be `/usr/local/info', but it should be written
- as `$(prefix)/info'. (If you are using Autoconf, write it as
- `@infodir@'.)
-
-`lispdir'
- The directory for installing any Emacs Lisp files in this package.
- By default, it should be `/usr/local/share/emacs/site-lisp', but
- it should be written as `$(prefix)/share/emacs/site-lisp'.
-
- If you are using Autoconf, write the default as `@lispdir@'. In
- order to make `@lispdir@' work, you need the following lines in
- your `configure.in' file:
-
- lispdir='${datadir}/emacs/site-lisp'
- AC_SUBST(lispdir)
-
-`includedir'
- The directory for installing header files to be included by user
- programs with the C `#include' preprocessor directive. This
- should normally be `/usr/local/include', but write it as
- `$(prefix)/include'. (If you are using Autoconf, write it as
- `@includedir@'.)
-
- Most compilers other than GCC do not look for header files in
- directory `/usr/local/include'. So installing the header files
- this way is only useful with GCC. Sometimes this is not a problem
- because some libraries are only really intended to work with GCC.
- But some libraries are intended to work with other compilers.
- They should install their header files in two places, one
- specified by `includedir' and one specified by `oldincludedir'.
-
-`oldincludedir'
- The directory for installing `#include' header files for use with
- compilers other than GCC. This should normally be `/usr/include'.
- (If you are using Autoconf, you can write it as `@oldincludedir@'.)
-
- The Makefile commands should check whether the value of
- `oldincludedir' is empty. If it is, they should not try to use
- it; they should cancel the second installation of the header files.
-
- A package should not replace an existing header in this directory
- unless the header came from the same package. Thus, if your Foo
- package provides a header file `foo.h', then it should install the
- header file in the `oldincludedir' directory if either (1) there
- is no `foo.h' there or (2) the `foo.h' that exists came from the
- Foo package.
-
- To tell whether `foo.h' came from the Foo package, put a magic
- string in the file--part of a comment--and `grep' for that string.
-
- Unix-style man pages are installed in one of the following:
-
-`mandir'
- The top-level directory for installing the man pages (if any) for
- this package. It will normally be `/usr/local/man', but you should
- write it as `$(prefix)/man'. (If you are using Autoconf, write it
- as `@mandir@'.)
-
-`man1dir'
- The directory for installing section 1 man pages. Write it as
- `$(mandir)/man1'.
-
-`man2dir'
- The directory for installing section 2 man pages. Write it as
- `$(mandir)/man2'
-
-`...'
- *Don't make the primary documentation for any GNU software be a
- man page. Write a manual in Texinfo instead. Man pages are just
- for the sake of people running GNU software on Unix, which is a
- secondary application only.*
-
-`manext'
- The file name extension for the installed man page. This should
- contain a period followed by the appropriate digit; it should
- normally be `.1'.
-
-`man1ext'
- The file name extension for installed section 1 man pages.
-
-`man2ext'
- The file name extension for installed section 2 man pages.
-
-`...'
- Use these names instead of `manext' if the package needs to
- install man pages in more than one section of the manual.
-
- And finally, you should set the following variable:
-
-`srcdir'
- The directory for the sources being compiled. The value of this
- variable is normally inserted by the `configure' shell script.
- (If you are using Autconf, use `srcdir = @srcdir@'.)
-
- For example:
-
- # Common prefix for installation directories.
- # NOTE: This directory must exist when you start the install.
- prefix = /usr/local
- exec_prefix = $(prefix)
- # Where to put the executable for the command `gcc'.
- bindir = $(exec_prefix)/bin
- # Where to put the directories used by the compiler.
- libexecdir = $(exec_prefix)/libexec
- # Where to put the Info files.
- infodir = $(prefix)/info
-
- If your program installs a large number of files into one of the
-standard user-specified directories, it might be useful to group them
-into a subdirectory particular to that program. If you do this, you
-should write the `install' rule to create these subdirectories.
-
- Do not expect the user to include the subdirectory name in the value
-of any of the variables listed above. The idea of having a uniform set
-of variable names for installation directories is to enable the user to
-specify the exact same values for several different GNU packages. In
-order for this to be useful, all the packages must be designed so that
-they will work sensibly when the user does so.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Standard Targets, Next: Install Command Categories, Prev: Directory Variables, Up: Makefile Conventions
-
-7.2.5 Standard Targets for Users
---------------------------------
-
-All GNU programs should have the following targets in their Makefiles:
-
-`all'
- Compile the entire program. This should be the default target.
- This target need not rebuild any documentation files; Info files
- should normally be included in the distribution, and DVI files
- should be made only when explicitly asked for.
-
- By default, the Make rules should compile and link with `-g', so
- that executable programs have debugging symbols. Users who don't
- mind being helpless can strip the executables later if they wish.
-
-`install'
- Compile the program and copy the executables, libraries, and so on
- to the file names where they should reside for actual use. If
- there is a simple test to verify that a program is properly
- installed, this target should run that test.
-
- Do not strip executables when installing them. Devil-may-care
- users can use the `install-strip' target to do that.
-
- If possible, write the `install' target rule so that it does not
- modify anything in the directory where the program was built,
- provided `make all' has just been done. This is convenient for
- building the program under one user name and installing it under
- another.
-
- The commands should create all the directories in which files are
- to be installed, if they don't already exist. This includes the
- directories specified as the values of the variables `prefix' and
- `exec_prefix', as well as all subdirectories that are needed. One
- way to do this is by means of an `installdirs' target as described
- below.
-
- Use `-' before any command for installing a man page, so that
- `make' will ignore any errors. This is in case there are systems
- that don't have the Unix man page documentation system installed.
-
- The way to install Info files is to copy them into `$(infodir)'
- with `$(INSTALL_DATA)' (*note Command Variables::), and then run
- the `install-info' program if it is present. `install-info' is a
- program that edits the Info `dir' file to add or update the menu
- entry for the given Info file; it is part of the Texinfo package.
- Here is a sample rule to install an Info file:
-
- $(DESTDIR)$(infodir)/foo.info: foo.info
- $(POST_INSTALL)
- # There may be a newer info file in . than in srcdir.
- -if test -f foo.info; then d=.; \
- else d=$(srcdir); fi; \
- $(INSTALL_DATA) $$d/foo.info $(DESTDIR)$@; \
- # Run install-info only if it exists.
- # Use `if' instead of just prepending `-' to the
- # line so we notice real errors from install-info.
- # We use `$(SHELL) -c' because some shells do not
- # fail gracefully when there is an unknown command.
- if $(SHELL) -c 'install-info --version' \
- >/dev/null 2>&1; then \
- install-info --dir-file=$(DESTDIR)$(infodir)/dir \
- $(DESTDIR)$(infodir)/foo.info; \
- else true; fi
-
- When writing the `install' target, you must classify all the
- commands into three categories: normal ones, "pre-installation"
- commands and "post-installation" commands. *Note Install Command
- Categories::.
-
-`uninstall'
- Delete all the installed files--the copies that the `install'
- target creates.
-
- This rule should not modify the directories where compilation is
- done, only the directories where files are installed.
-
- The uninstallation commands are divided into three categories,
- just like the installation commands. *Note Install Command
- Categories::.
-
-`install-strip'
- Like `install', but strip the executable files while installing
- them. In simple cases, this target can use the `install' target in
- a simple way:
-
- install-strip:
- $(MAKE) INSTALL_PROGRAM='$(INSTALL_PROGRAM) -s' \
- install
-
- But if the package installs scripts as well as real executables,
- the `install-strip' target can't just refer to the `install'
- target; it has to strip the executables but not the scripts.
-
- `install-strip' should not strip the executables in the build
- directory which are being copied for installation. It should only
- strip the copies that are installed.
-
- Normally we do not recommend stripping an executable unless you
- are sure the program has no bugs. However, it can be reasonable
- to install a stripped executable for actual execution while saving
- the unstripped executable elsewhere in case there is a bug.
-
-`clean'
- Delete all files from the current directory that are normally
- created by building the program. Don't delete the files that
- record the configuration. Also preserve files that could be made
- by building, but normally aren't because the distribution comes
- with them.
-
- Delete `.dvi' files here if they are not part of the distribution.
-
-`distclean'
- Delete all files from the current directory that are created by
- configuring or building the program. If you have unpacked the
- source and built the program without creating any other files,
- `make distclean' should leave only the files that were in the
- distribution.
-
-`mostlyclean'
- Like `clean', but may refrain from deleting a few files that people
- normally don't want to recompile. For example, the `mostlyclean'
- target for GCC does not delete `libgcc.a', because recompiling it
- is rarely necessary and takes a lot of time.
-
-`maintainer-clean'
- Delete almost everything from the current directory that can be
- reconstructed with this Makefile. This typically includes
- everything deleted by `distclean', plus more: C source files
- produced by Bison, tags tables, Info files, and so on.
-
- The reason we say "almost everything" is that running the command
- `make maintainer-clean' should not delete `configure' even if
- `configure' can be remade using a rule in the Makefile. More
- generally, `make maintainer-clean' should not delete anything that
- needs to exist in order to run `configure' and then begin to build
- the program. This is the only exception; `maintainer-clean' should
- delete everything else that can be rebuilt.
-
- The `maintainer-clean' target is intended to be used by a
- maintainer of the package, not by ordinary users. You may need
- special tools to reconstruct some of the files that `make
- maintainer-clean' deletes. Since these files are normally
- included in the distribution, we don't take care to make them easy
- to reconstruct. If you find you need to unpack the full
- distribution again, don't blame us.
-
- To help make users aware of this, the commands for the special
- `maintainer-clean' target should start with these two:
-
- @echo 'This command is intended for maintainers to use; it'
- @echo 'deletes files that may need special tools to rebuild.'
-
-`TAGS'
- Update a tags table for this program.
-
-`info'
- Generate any Info files needed. The best way to write the rules
- is as follows:
-
- info: foo.info
-
- foo.info: foo.texi chap1.texi chap2.texi
- $(MAKEINFO) $(srcdir)/foo.texi
-
- You must define the variable `MAKEINFO' in the Makefile. It should
- run the `makeinfo' program, which is part of the Texinfo
- distribution.
-
- Normally a GNU distribution comes with Info files, and that means
- the Info files are present in the source directory. Therefore,
- the Make rule for an info file should update it in the source
- directory. When users build the package, ordinarily Make will not
- update the Info files because they will already be up to date.
-
-`dvi'
- Generate DVI files for all Texinfo documentation. For example:
-
- dvi: foo.dvi
-
- foo.dvi: foo.texi chap1.texi chap2.texi
- $(TEXI2DVI) $(srcdir)/foo.texi
-
- You must define the variable `TEXI2DVI' in the Makefile. It should
- run the program `texi2dvi', which is part of the Texinfo
- distribution.(1) Alternatively, write just the dependencies, and
- allow GNU `make' to provide the command.
-
-`dist'
- Create a distribution tar file for this program. The tar file
- should be set up so that the file names in the tar file start with
- a subdirectory name which is the name of the package it is a
- distribution for. This name can include the version number.
-
- For example, the distribution tar file of GCC version 1.40 unpacks
- into a subdirectory named `gcc-1.40'.
-
- The easiest way to do this is to create a subdirectory
- appropriately named, use `ln' or `cp' to install the proper files
- in it, and then `tar' that subdirectory.
-
- Compress the tar file with `gzip'. For example, the actual
- distribution file for GCC version 1.40 is called `gcc-1.40.tar.gz'.
-
- The `dist' target should explicitly depend on all non-source files
- that are in the distribution, to make sure they are up to date in
- the distribution. *Note Making Releases: Releases.
-
-`check'
- Perform self-tests (if any). The user must build the program
- before running the tests, but need not install the program; you
- should write the self-tests so that they work when the program is
- built but not installed.
-
- The following targets are suggested as conventional names, for
-programs in which they are useful.
-
-`installcheck'
- Perform installation tests (if any). The user must build and
- install the program before running the tests. You should not
- assume that `$(bindir)' is in the search path.
-
-`installdirs'
- It's useful to add a target named `installdirs' to create the
- directories where files are installed, and their parent
- directories. There is a script called `mkinstalldirs' which is
- convenient for this; you can find it in the Texinfo package. You
- can use a rule like this:
-
- # Make sure all installation directories (e.g. $(bindir))
- # actually exist by making them if necessary.
- installdirs: mkinstalldirs
- $(srcdir)/mkinstalldirs $(bindir) $(datadir) \
- $(libdir) $(infodir) \
- $(mandir)
-
- or, if you wish to support `DESTDIR',
-
- # Make sure all installation directories (e.g. $(bindir))
- # actually exist by making them if necessary.
- installdirs: mkinstalldirs
- $(srcdir)/mkinstalldirs \
- $(DESTDIR)$(bindir) $(DESTDIR)$(datadir) \
- $(DESTDIR)$(libdir) $(DESTDIR)$(infodir) \
- $(DESTDIR)$(mandir)
-
- This rule should not modify the directories where compilation is
- done. It should do nothing but create installation directories.
-
- ---------- Footnotes ----------
-
- (1) `texi2dvi' uses TeX to do the real work of formatting. TeX is
-not distributed with Texinfo.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Install Command Categories, Prev: Standard Targets, Up: Makefile Conventions
-
-7.2.6 Install Command Categories
---------------------------------
-
-When writing the `install' target, you must classify all the commands
-into three categories: normal ones, "pre-installation" commands and
-"post-installation" commands.
-
- Normal commands move files into their proper places, and set their
-modes. They may not alter any files except the ones that come entirely
-from the package they belong to.
-
- Pre-installation and post-installation commands may alter other
-files; in particular, they can edit global configuration files or data
-bases.
-
- Pre-installation commands are typically executed before the normal
-commands, and post-installation commands are typically run after the
-normal commands.
-
- The most common use for a post-installation command is to run
-`install-info'. This cannot be done with a normal command, since it
-alters a file (the Info directory) which does not come entirely and
-solely from the package being installed. It is a post-installation
-command because it needs to be done after the normal command which
-installs the package's Info files.
-
- Most programs don't need any pre-installation commands, but we have
-the feature just in case it is needed.
-
- To classify the commands in the `install' rule into these three
-categories, insert "category lines" among them. A category line
-specifies the category for the commands that follow.
-
- A category line consists of a tab and a reference to a special Make
-variable, plus an optional comment at the end. There are three
-variables you can use, one for each category; the variable name
-specifies the category. Category lines are no-ops in ordinary execution
-because these three Make variables are normally undefined (and you
-_should not_ define them in the makefile).
-
- Here are the three possible category lines, each with a comment that
-explains what it means:
-
- $(PRE_INSTALL) # Pre-install commands follow.
- $(POST_INSTALL) # Post-install commands follow.
- $(NORMAL_INSTALL) # Normal commands follow.
-
- If you don't use a category line at the beginning of the `install'
-rule, all the commands are classified as normal until the first category
-line. If you don't use any category lines, all the commands are
-classified as normal.
-
- These are the category lines for `uninstall':
-
- $(PRE_UNINSTALL) # Pre-uninstall commands follow.
- $(POST_UNINSTALL) # Post-uninstall commands follow.
- $(NORMAL_UNINSTALL) # Normal commands follow.
-
- Typically, a pre-uninstall command would be used for deleting entries
-from the Info directory.
-
- If the `install' or `uninstall' target has any dependencies which
-act as subroutines of installation, then you should start _each_
-dependency's commands with a category line, and start the main target's
-commands with a category line also. This way, you can ensure that each
-command is placed in the right category regardless of which of the
-dependencies actually run.
-
- Pre-installation and post-installation commands should not run any
-programs except for these:
-
- [ basename bash cat chgrp chmod chown cmp cp dd diff echo
- egrep expand expr false fgrep find getopt grep gunzip gzip
- hostname install install-info kill ldconfig ln ls md5sum
- mkdir mkfifo mknod mv printenv pwd rm rmdir sed sort tee
- test touch true uname xargs yes
-
- The reason for distinguishing the commands in this way is for the
-sake of making binary packages. Typically a binary package contains
-all the executables and other files that need to be installed, and has
-its own method of installing them--so it does not need to run the normal
-installation commands. But installing the binary package does need to
-execute the pre-installation and post-installation commands.
-
- Programs to build binary packages work by extracting the
-pre-installation and post-installation commands. Here is one way of
-extracting the pre-installation commands:
-
- make -n install -o all \
- PRE_INSTALL=pre-install \
- POST_INSTALL=post-install \
- NORMAL_INSTALL=normal-install \
- | gawk -f pre-install.awk
-
-where the file `pre-install.awk' could contain this:
-
- $0 ~ /^\t[ \t]*(normal_install|post_install)[ \t]*$/ {on = 0}
- on {print $0}
- $0 ~ /^\t[ \t]*pre_install[ \t]*$/ {on = 1}
-
- The resulting file of pre-installation commands is executed as a
-shell script as part of installing the binary package.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Releases, Prev: Makefile Conventions, Up: Managing Releases
-
-7.3 Making Releases
-===================
-
-Package the distribution of `Foo version 69.96' up in a gzipped tar
-file with the name `foo-69.96.tar.gz'. It should unpack into a
-subdirectory named `foo-69.96'.
-
- Building and installing the program should never modify any of the
-files contained in the distribution. This means that all the files
-that form part of the program in any way must be classified into "source
-files" and "non-source files". Source files are written by humans and
-never changed automatically; non-source files are produced from source
-files by programs under the control of the Makefile.
-
- The distribution should contain a file named `README' which gives
-the name of the package, and a general description of what it does. It
-is also good to explain the purpose of each of the first-level
-subdirectories in the package, if there are any. The `README' file
-should either state the version number of the package, or refer to where
-in the package it can be found.
-
- The `README' file should refer to the file `INSTALL', which should
-contain an explanation of the installation procedure.
-
- The `README' file should also refer to the file which contains the
-copying conditions. The GNU GPL, if used, should be in a file called
-`COPYING'. If the GNU LGPL is used, it should be in a file called
-`COPYING.LIB'.
-
- Naturally, all the source files must be in the distribution. It is
-okay to include non-source files in the distribution, provided they are
-up-to-date and machine-independent, so that building the distribution
-normally will never modify them. We commonly include non-source files
-produced by Bison, `lex', TeX, and `makeinfo'; this helps avoid
-unnecessary dependencies between our distributions, so that users can
-install whichever packages they want to install.
-
- Non-source files that might actually be modified by building and
-installing the program should *never* be included in the distribution.
-So if you do distribute non-source files, always make sure they are up
-to date when you make a new distribution.
-
- Make sure that the directory into which the distribution unpacks (as
-well as any subdirectories) are all world-writable (octal mode 777).
-This is so that old versions of `tar' which preserve the ownership and
-permissions of the files from the tar archive will be able to extract
-all the files even if the user is unprivileged.
-
- Make sure that all the files in the distribution are world-readable.
-
- Make sure that no file name in the distribution is more than 14
-characters long. Likewise, no file created by building the program
-should have a name longer than 14 characters. The reason for this is
-that some systems adhere to a foolish interpretation of the POSIX
-standard, and refuse to open a longer name, rather than truncating as
-they did in the past.
-
- Don't include any symbolic links in the distribution itself. If the
-tar file contains symbolic links, then people cannot even unpack it on
-systems that don't support symbolic links. Also, don't use multiple
-names for one file in different directories, because certain file
-systems cannot handle this and that prevents unpacking the distribution.
-
- Try to make sure that all the file names will be unique on MS-DOS. A
-name on MS-DOS consists of up to 8 characters, optionally followed by a
-period and up to three characters. MS-DOS will truncate extra
-characters both before and after the period. Thus, `foobarhacker.c'
-and `foobarhacker.o' are not ambiguous; they are truncated to
-`foobarha.c' and `foobarha.o', which are distinct.
-
- Include in your distribution a copy of the `texinfo.tex' you used to
-test print any `*.texinfo' or `*.texi' files.
-
- Likewise, if your program uses small GNU software packages like
-regex, getopt, obstack, or termcap, include them in the distribution
-file. Leaving them out would make the distribution file a little
-smaller at the expense of possible inconvenience to a user who doesn't
-know what other files to get.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: References, Next: Copying This Manual, Prev: Managing Releases, Up: Top
-
-8 References to Non-Free Software and Documentation
-***************************************************
-
-A GNU program should not recommend use of any non-free program. We
-can't stop some people from writing proprietary programs, or stop other
-people from using them, but we can and should avoid helping to
-advertise them to new potential customers. Proprietary software is a
-social and ethical problem, and the point of GNU is to solve that
-problem.
-
- When a non-free program or system is well known, you can mention it
-in passing--that is harmless, since users who might want to use it
-probably already know about it. For instance, it is fine to explain
-how to build your package on top of some non-free operating system, or
-how to use it together with some widely used non-free program.
-
- However, you should give only the necessary information to help those
-who already use the non-free program to use your program with it--don't
-give, or refer to, any further information about the proprietary
-program, and don't imply that the proprietary program enhances your
-program, or that its existence is in any way a good thing. The goal
-should be that people already using the proprietary program will get
-the advice they need about how to use your free program, while people
-who don't already use the proprietary program will not see anything to
-lead them to take an interest in it.
-
- If a non-free program or system is obscure in your program's domain,
-your program should not mention or support it at all, since doing so
-would tend to popularize the non-free program more than it popularizes
-your program. (You cannot hope to find many additional users among the
-users of Foobar if the users of Foobar are few.)
-
- A GNU package should not refer the user to any non-free documentation
-for free software. Free documentation that can be included in free
-operating systems is essential for completing the GNU system, so it is
-a major focus of the GNU Project; to recommend use of documentation
-that we are not allowed to use in GNU would undermine the efforts to
-get documentation that we can include. So GNU packages should never
-recommend non-free documentation.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Copying This Manual, Next: Index, Prev: References, Up: Top
-
-Appendix A Copying This Manual
-******************************
-
-* Menu:
-
-* GNU Free Documentation License:: License for copying this manual
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: GNU Free Documentation License, Up: Copying This Manual
-
-Appendix B GNU Free Documentation License
-*****************************************
-
- Version 1.1, March 2000
-
- Copyright (C) 2000 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
- 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA
-
- Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
- of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
-
-
- 0. PREAMBLE
-
- The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other
- written document "free" in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone
- the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without
- modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily,
- this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get
- credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for
- modifications made by others.
-
- This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative
- works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense.
- It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft
- license designed for free software.
-
- We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for
- free software, because free software needs free documentation: a
- free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms
- that the software does. But this License is not limited to
- software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless
- of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book.
- We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is
- instruction or reference.
-
-
- 1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
-
- This License applies to any manual or other work that contains a
- notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed
- under the terms of this License. The "Document", below, refers to
- any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee,
- and is addressed as "you."
-
- A "Modified Version" of the Document means any work containing the
- Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with
- modifications and/or translated into another language.
-
- A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter
- section of the Document that deals exclusively with the
- relationship of the publishers or authors of the Document to the
- Document's overall subject (or to related matters) and contains
- nothing that could fall directly within that overall subject.
- (For example, if the Document is in part a textbook of
- mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.)
- The relationship could be a matter of historical connection with
- the subject or with related matters, or of legal, commercial,
- philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them.
-
- The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose
- titles are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in
- the notice that says that the Document is released under this
- License.
-
- The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are
- listed, as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice
- that says that the Document is released under this License.
-
- A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy,
- represented in a format whose specification is available to the
- general public, whose contents can be viewed and edited directly
- and straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images
- composed of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some
- widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to
- text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of
- formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in an
- otherwise Transparent file format whose markup has been designed
- to thwart or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not
- Transparent. A copy that is not "Transparent" is called "Opaque."
-
- Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain
- ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format,
- SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD, and
- standard-conforming simple HTML designed for human modification.
- Opaque formats include PostScript, PDF, proprietary formats that
- can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML
- or XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally
- available, and the machine-generated HTML produced by some word
- processors for output purposes only.
-
- The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself,
- plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the
- material this License requires to appear in the title page. For
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- H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.
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- to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
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- If there is no section entitled "History" in the Document,
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- 5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
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- must delete all sections entitled "Endorsements."
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- 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
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- You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other
- documents released under this License, and replace the individual
- copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy
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- rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the
- documents in all other respects.
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- that document.
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- 7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
-
- A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other
- separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of
- a storage or distribution medium, does not as a whole count as a
- Modified Version of the Document, provided no compilation
- copyright is claimed for the compilation. Such a compilation is
- called an "aggregate", and this License does not apply to the
- other self-contained works thus compiled with the Document, on
- account of their being thus compiled, if they are not themselves
- derivative works of the Document.
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- If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these
- copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one
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-
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- void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this
- License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights,
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- terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.
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- 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
-
- The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of
- the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new
- versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may
- differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See
- http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
-
- Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version
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- the Document does not specify a version number of this License,
- you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the
- Free Software Foundation.
-
-
-ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents
-====================================================
-
-To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of
-the License in the document and put the following copyright and license
-notices just after the title page:
-
- Copyright (C) YEAR YOUR NAME.
- Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
- under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
- or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
- with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the
- Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST.
- A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU
- Free Documentation License."
-
- If you have no Invariant Sections, write "with no Invariant Sections"
-instead of saying which ones are invariant. If you have no Front-Cover
-Texts, write "no Front-Cover Texts" instead of "Front-Cover Texts being
-LIST"; likewise for Back-Cover Texts.
-
- If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
-recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of
-free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to
-permit their use in free software.
-
-\1f
-File: standards.info, Node: Index, Prev: Copying This Manual, Up: Top
-
-Index
-*****
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- (line 6)
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- (line 6)
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- (line 6)
-* gnome: Graphical Interfaces.
- (line 16)
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- (line 6)
-* gtk: Graphical Interfaces.
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-* GUILE: Source Language. (line 38)
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-* malloc return value: Semantics. (line 25)
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-* memory allocation failure: Semantics. (line 25)
-* memory usage: Memory Usage. (line 6)
-* message text, and internationalization: Internationalization.
- (line 29)
-* mmap: Mmap. (line 6)
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- (line 35)
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-* NEWS file: NEWS File. (line 6)
-* non-POSIX systems, and portability: System Portability. (line 32)
-* non-standard extensions: Using Extensions. (line 6)
-* NUL characters: Semantics. (line 11)
-* open brace: Formatting. (line 6)
-* optional features, configure-time: Configuration. (line 76)
-* options for compatibility: Compatibility. (line 14)
-* output device and program's behavior: User Interfaces. (line 13)
-* packaging: Releases. (line 6)
-* portability, and data types: CPU Portability. (line 6)
-* portability, and library functions: System Functions. (line 6)
-* portability, between system types: System Portability. (line 6)
-* POSIX compatibility: Compatibility. (line 6)
-* POSIXLY_CORRECT, environment variable: Compatibility. (line 21)
-* post-installation commands: Install Command Categories.
- (line 6)
-* pre-installation commands: Install Command Categories.
- (line 6)
-* prefix: Directory Variables. (line 17)
-* program configuration: Configuration. (line 6)
-* program design: Design Advice. (line 6)
-* program name and its behavior: User Interfaces. (line 6)
-* program's canonical name: Command-Line Interfaces.
- (line 41)
-* programming languges: Source Language. (line 6)
-* proprietary programs: Reading Non-Free Code.
- (line 6)
-* README file: Releases. (line 17)
-* references to non-free material: References. (line 6)
-* releasing: Managing Releases. (line 6)
-* sbindir: Directory Variables. (line 51)
-* signal handling: Semantics. (line 59)
-* spaces before open-paren: Formatting. (line 71)
-* standard command-line options: Command-Line Interfaces.
- (line 31)
-* standards for makefiles: Makefile Conventions.
- (line 6)
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- (line 6)
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-* temporary variables: Syntactic Conventions.
- (line 23)
-* texinfo.tex, in a distribution: Releases. (line 73)
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projects / msp430-binutils.git / blobdiff